Fermat's Library | Mosh: An Interactive Remote Shell for Mobile Clients annotated/explained version.

Mosh is a remote terminal application like Secure Shell (SSH) with ...

SSH connections require at least one round-trip as the keystroke ha...

SSH operating in a character-at-a-time mode, having each echo and l...

Mosh's approach to the problem is simple: > Mosh performs predic...

Arguably the most important feature of Mosh, perhaps even more impo...

Mosh uses existing infrastructure for authentication and login, foc...

The Mosh client decides how confident to be in a prediction based o...

In these trials, Mosh was able to confidently predict 70% of the ke...

Mosh: An Interactive Remote Shell for Mobile Clients

Keith Winstein and Hari Balakrishnan

M.I.T. Computer Science and Artiﬁcial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass.

{keithw,hari}@mit.edu

Abstract

Mosh (mobile shell) is a remote terminal application

that supports intermittent connectivity, allows roaming,

and speculatively and safely echoes user keystrokes for

better interactive response over high-latency paths. Mosh

is built on the State Synchronization Protocol (SSP),

a new UDP-based protocol that securely synchronizes

client and server state, even across changes of the client’s

IP address. Mosh uses SSP to synchronize a character-

cell terminal emulator, maintaining terminal state at both

client and server to predictively echo keystrokes. Our

evaluation analyzed keystroke traces from six different

users covering a period of 40 hours of real-world us-

age. Mosh was able to immediately display the ef-

fects of 70% of the user keystrokes. Over a commer-

cial EV-DO (3G) network, median keystroke response

latency with Mosh was less than 5 ms, compared with

503 ms for SSH. Mosh is free software, available from

http://mosh.mit.edu. It was downloaded more than

15,000 times in the ﬁrst week of its release.

1 Introduction

Remote terminal applications are almost as old as packet-

switched data networks. The most popular such applica-

tion today is the Secure Shell (SSH) [9], which runs in-

side a terminal emulator. Unfortunately, SSH has two

major weaknesses that make it unsuitable for mobile

use. First, because it runs over TCP, SSH does not sup-

port roaming among IP addresses, or cope with intermit-

tent connectivity while data is pending, and is almost

unusable over marginal paths with non-trivial packet

loss. Second, SSH operates strictly in character-at-a-

time mode, with all echoes and line editing performed

by the remote host. On today’s commercial EV-DO and

UMTS (3G) mobile networks, round-trip latency is typi-

cally in the hundreds of milliseconds when unloaded, and

on both 3G and LTE networks, delays reach several sec-

onds when buffers are ﬁlled by a concurrent bulk transfer.

Such delays often make SSH painful for interactive use

on mobile devices.

This paper describes a solution to both problems.

We have built Mosh, the mobile shell, a remote ter-

minal application that supports IP roaming, intermittent

connectivity, and marginal network connections. Mosh

performs predictive client-side echoing and line editing

without any change to server software, and without re-

gard to which application is running. Mosh makes re-

Figure 1: Mosh in use.

mote servers feel more like the local computer, because

most keystrokes are reﬂected immediately on the user’s

display—even in full-screen programs like a text editor

or mail reader.

These features are possible because Mosh operates at

a different layer from SSH. While SSH securely con-

veys an octet-stream over the network and then hands it

off to a separate client-side terminal emulator to be inter-

preted and rendered in cells on the screen, Mosh contains

a server-side terminal emulator and uses a new protocol

to synchronize terminal screen states over the network,

using the principle of application-layer framing [3].

Because both the server and client maintain an image

of the screen state, Mosh can support intermittent con-

nectivity and local editing, and can adjust its network

trafﬁc to avoid ﬁlling network buffers on slow links. As a

result, unlike in SSH, in Mosh “Control-C” always works

to cease output from a runaway process within an RTT.

Mosh’s design makes two principal contributions:

1. State Synchronization Protocol: A new secure

object synchronization protocol on top of UDP to

synchronize abstract state objects in the presence

of roaming, intermittent connectivity, and marginal

networks (§2).

2. Speculation: Mosh maintains the screen state at

both the server and client and uses the above pro-

tocol to synchronize them (§3). The client makes

guesses about the effect each new keystroke will

have on the screen, and when conﬁdent renders the

effects immediately. The client veriﬁes its predic-

tions and can repair the screen state if necessary.

We have implemented Mosh in C++ and have exper-

imented across various networks and across disconnec-

tions (§4). Mosh is free software, distributed with a vari-

ety of operating systems and at http://mosh.mit.edu.

Mosh was downloaded more than 15,000 times in its ﬁrst

week of release in April 2012. An example of Mosh’s in-

terface is shown in Figure 1.

2 State Synchronization Protocol

Mosh works to convey the most recent state of the screen

from server to client at a “frame rate” chosen based on

network conditions. This allows the server to avoid ﬁll-

ing up network buffers, because it does not need to send

every octet generated by the application. (The reverse

direction has less ﬂexibility because the client must send

every keystroke to the server.)

Supporting this is SSP, a lightweight secure datagram

protocol to synchronize the state of abstract objects be-

tween a local node, which controls the object, and a re-

mote host that may be only intermittently connected.

A state-synchronization approach is appropriate for

tasks like editing a document or using an e-mail or chat

application, which control the entire screen and provide

their own means of navigation through a document or

chat session. But it causes trouble for a task like “cat”-

ing a large ﬁle to the screen, where the user might rely

on having accurate history on the scrollback buffer.

When these semantics are a problem, the user can use

a pager such as less or more, or can use the screen or

tmux utilities, which are essentially pagers for the entire

terminal. Future versions of Mosh will allow the user to

browse the scrollback history.

The Mosh system runs SSP in each direction, instan-

tiated on two different kinds of objects. From client to

server, the objects represent the history of the user’s in-

put. From server to client, the objects represent the con-

tents of the terminal window.

2.1 Protocol design goals

SSP’s design goals were to:

1. Leverage existing infrastructure for authentication

and login, e.g., SSH.

2. Not require any privileged code.

3. At any time, take the action best calculated to fast-

forward the remote host to the sender’s current state.

4. Accommodate a roaming client whose IP address

changes, without the client’s having to know that a

change has happened.

5. Recover from dropped or reordered packets.

6. Ensure conﬁdentiality and authenticity.

Because SSP doesn’t use any privileged code or au-

thenticate users, and key exchange happens out-of-band,

its security concerns are simpliﬁed. To bootstrap the ses-

sion, the user runs a script that logs in to the remote host

using conventional means (e.g., SSH) and runs the un-

privileged server. This program listens on a high UDP

port and prints out a random shared encryption key. The

system then shuts down the SSH connection and talks

directly to the server over UDP.

SSP is organized into two layers. A datagram layer

sends UDP packets over the network, and a transport

layer is responsible for conveying the current object state

to the remote host.

2.2 Datagram Layer

The datagram layer maintains the “roaming” connec-

tion. It accepts opaque payloads from the transport layer,

prepends an incrementing sequence number, encrypts the

packet, and sends the resulting ciphertext in a UDP data-

gram. It is responsible for estimating the timing char-

acteristics of the link and keeping track of the client’s

current public IP address.

The security of the system is built on AES-128 in the

Offset Codebook (OCB) mode [5], which provides con-

ﬁdentiality and authenticity with a single secret key.

To handle reordered and repeated packets, SSP relies

on the principle of idempotency. Each datagram sent to

the remote site represents an idempotent operation at the

recipient—a “diff” between a numbered source and tar-

get state. As a result, unlike Datagram TLS and Ker-

beros, SSP does not need to maintain a replay cache or

other message history state, simplifying the design and

implementation.

Client roaming. Every time the server receives an au-

thentic datagram from the client with a sequence number

greater than any before, it sets the packet’s source IP ad-

dress and UDP port number as its new “target.” As a

result, client roaming happens automatically, without the

client’s timing out or even knowing that it has changed

public IP addresses.

Estimating round-trip time and RTT variation. The

datagram layer is also responsible for estimating the

smoothed round-trip time (SRTT) and RTT variation

(RTTVAR) of the connection. Every outgoing datagram

contains a millisecond timestamp and an optional “times-

tamp reply,” containing the most recently-received times-

tamp from the remote host.

We use the algorithm of TCP [7] with three changes:

1. Because every datagram has a unique sequence

number, there is no ambiguity between the times-

tamps of retransmissions of the same payload.

2. SSP adjusts the “timestamp reply” by the amount of

time since it received the corresponding timestamp.

Therefore, policies like delayed ACKs do not affect

the accuracy of the RTT estimates.

3. We reduce the lower limit on the retransmission

timeout to be 50 ms instead of one second. SSH

runs over TCP and rarely beneﬁts from fast re-

transmissions, meaning it generally cannot detect a

dropped keystroke in less than a second.

2.3 Transport Layer

The transport layer synchronizes the contents of the local

state to the remote host, and is agnostic to the type of

objects sent and received.

Transport sender behavior: The transport sender up-

dates the receiver to the current state of the object by

sending an Instruction: a self-contained message listing

the source and target states and the binary “diff” between

them. This “diff” is a logical one, calculated by the ob-

ject implementation. The ultimate semantics of the pro-

tocol depend on the type of object, and are not dictated

by SSP. For example, for user inputs, the diff contains

every intervening keystroke, whereas for screen states, it

is only the minimal message that transforms the client’s

frame to the current one.

Transport sender timing: Because SSP can construct

a diff between any two object states, it is not required

to send every octet it receives from the host and can

modulate the “frame rate” based on network conditions.

The minimum interval between frames is set at half the

smoothed RTT estimate, so there is about one Instruction

in ﬂight to the receiver at any time.

As a result, when a process goes haywire and ﬂoods

the terminal, network buffers do not ﬁll up and increase

latency, so unlike in prior work, Control-C and other in-

terrupt sequences continue to work.

The transport sender uses delayed acks, similar to

TCP, to cut down on excess packets. In more than 99.9%

of cases in our experiments, a delay of 100 ms was sufﬁ-

cient to let the delayed ACK piggyback on host data.

The server also pauses from the ﬁrst time its object has

changed before sending off an Instruction, because up-

dates to the screen tend to clump together, and it would

be wasteful to send off a new frame with a partial update

and then have to wait the full “frame rate” interval be-

fore sending another. A collection interval of 8 ms was

chosen as optimal after analyzing application traces (§ 4).

SSP sends an occasional heartbeat to allow the server

to learn when the client has roamed to a new IP address,

and to allow the client to warn the user when it hasn’t

recently heard from the server. The heartbeat also keeps

the connection open when the client is behind a network

We cap the maximum frame rate at 50 Hz, roughly the limit of

human perception, to save unnecessary trafﬁc on low-latency paths.

address translator. We chose an interval of 3 seconds

to compromise between responsiveness and the desire to

reduce unnecessary chatter.

3 A Remote Terminal with Speculative

Local Echo

To support the Mosh application, we implemented a ter-

minal emulator that obeys the SSP object interface. The

client sends all keystrokes to the server, which applies

them and maintains the authoritative state of the termi-

nal, which it in turn synchronizes back to the client.

The client intelligently guesses the effect that

keystrokes will have on the terminal, and in most cases

can speculatively apply such effects immediately. The

client observes the success of its predictions to decide

how conﬁdent to be and whether to display the predic-

tions to the user.

On high-delay connections, we underline unconﬁrmed

predictions so the user doesn’t become misled. This

underline trails behind the user’s cursor and disappears

gradually as responses arrive from the server. Occasional

mistakes can be removed within an RTT and do not cause

lasting effect.

3.1 Implementing the terminal emulator

Mosh’s terminal emulator implements the subset of

the ISO/IEC 6429/ECMA-48 language [1] used by

typical terminal emulators, including the xterm,

gnome-terminal, Terminal.app, and PuTTY pro-

grams for X11, OS X, and Windows. This protocol was

popularized by Digital Equipment Corp. in the 1970s and

80s and speciﬁes a series of escape sequences to move

the cursor, render characters in bold and colors, erase ar-

eas of the screen, etc. The protocol is bidirectional, as

the host can query the terminal for its current character

position and ask it to identify itself.

3.2 Speculative local echo

Because Mosh operates at the terminal emulation layer

and maintains the screen state at both the server and

client, it is possible for the client to make predictions

about the effect of user keystrokes and later verify its

predictions against the authoritative screen state coming

from the server.

Most Unix applications operate similarly in response

to user keystrokes. They either echo the key at the current

cursor location or not. As a result, it is possible to ap-

proximate a local user interface for arbitrary remote ap-

plications. We use this technique to boost the perceived

interactivity of a Mosh session over a high-latency net-

work or one with packet loss.

Our general strategy is for the Mosh client to make

an echo prediction each time the user hits a key, but not

necessarily to display this prediction immediately.

The predictions are made in groups known as

“epochs,” with the intention that either all of the pre-

dictions in an epoch will be correct, or none will. An

epoch begins tentatively, making predictions only in the

background. If any prediction from a certain epoch is

conﬁrmed by the server, the rest of the predictions in that

epoch are immediately displayed to the user, along with

any future predictions in the same epoch.

Some user keystrokes are likely to alter the host’s echo

state from echoing to not, or are otherwise hard to pre-

dict, including the up- and down-arrow keys and control

characters. These cause Mosh to lose conﬁdence and in-

crement the epoch, so that future predictions are made in

the background again.

In practice, this approach accommodates a wide vari-

ety of application behaviors, including multi-mode edi-

tors like vi (which sometimes echo conventionally and

sometimes don’t), and the possibility that the user might

type a command at the prompt (e.g., passwd) that stops

server-side echoes after the ENTER key is typed.

Because the decision to perform local echo is made en-

tirely based on the application’s observed behavior, ap-

plications need not be rewritten to accommodate local

echo. Unlike prior work, Mosh’s local echo works even

with full-screen programs (like emacs) that put the ter-

minal driver in “raw” mode and do their own echoing.

In typical use, Mosh can display immediately the ef-

fects of almost all “typing,” which constitutes more than

two-thirds of user keystrokes in our captures. The re-

maining keystrokes are principally “navigation” (such as

“n” to move to the next e-mail message in a mail reader),

which cannot be predicted locally.

Server-side assistance for prediction evaluation

For the above algorithm to work properly, the Mosh

client must be able to reliably determine whether its

echo predictions are correct. Early versions of Mosh at-

tempted to do this with the client only, by simply exam-

ining whether a predicted echo was present on the screen

by the time the Mosh server had acknowledged the cor-

responding keystroke.

Unfortunately, in trials, we found that applications

sometimes take tens of milliseconds after input is pre-

sented to them before echoing to the screen. This can

lead the Mosh server to acknowledge an input keystroke

before the echo is present in the screen state, and causes

the client to conclude that its prediction was incorrect,

even though the echo is on the way. This produces an-

noying ﬂicker as the echo is (mistakenly) removed from

the screen, then reinstated when it eventually arrives

from the server.

Our initial solution to this problem was a client-side

timeout, so that a prediction is not considered incor-

rect until the corresponding keystroke has been acknowl-

edged by the server and a certain amount of time has

elapsed. Unfortunately, because of network jitter that can

delay the eventual echo beyond the timeout, this too pro-

duced an annoying number of false-negatives and result-

ing ﬂicker. (By contrast, setting the timeout long enough

to accommodate large amounts of jitter causes mistaken

predictions to linger on the screen for too long.)

Our ﬁnal solution was to implement a server-side time-

out of 50 ms, chosen to contain the vast majority of le-

gitimate application echoes on loaded servers, while still

fast enough to rapidly detect mistaken predictions. The

terminal object that is synchronized to the client contains

an “echo ack” ﬁeld, representing the latest keystroke that

has been presented to the application for at least 50 ms

and whose effects ought to be reﬂected in the current

screen. The client has no timeouts of its own, and con-

sequently network jitter does not adversely affect the

client’s ability to evaluate whether a prediction is correct.

The cost is increased network trafﬁc, because the server

often sends an extra datagram 50 ms after a keystroke to

convey the echo ack.

In practice, this has eliminated the ﬂicker caused by

false-negatives.

4 Results

We evaluated Mosh using traces contributed by six users,

covering about 40 hours of real-world usage and includ-

ing 9,986 total keystrokes. These traces included the

timing and contents of all writes from the user to a re-

mote host and vice versa. The users were asked to con-

tribute “typical, real-world sessions.” In practice, the

traces include use of popular programs such as the bash

and zsh shells, the alpine and mutt e-mail clients, the

emacs and vim text editors, the irssi and barnowl chat

clients, the links text-mode Web browser, and several

programs unique to each user.

To evaluate typical usage of a “mobile” terminal, we

replayed the traces over an otherwise unloaded Sprint

commercial EV-DO (3G) cellular Internet connection in

Cambridge, Mass. A client-side process played the user

portion of the traces, and a server-side process waited for

the expected user input and then replied (in time) with

the prerecorded server output. We sped up long periods

with no activity. The average round-trip time on the link

was about half a second.

We replayed the traces over two different remote shell

applications, SSH and Mosh, and recorded the user inter-

face response latency to each simulated user keystroke,

as seen by the user. The Mosh predictive algorithm and

Figure 2: Cumulative distribution of keystroke response

times with Sprint EV-DO (3G) Internet service

100

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Percentage

Keystroke response time (seconds)

Mosh

median: 5 ms

mean: 173 ms

median: 503 ms

mean: 515 ms

SSH

SSP were frozen prior to collecting the traces and were

not adjusted in response to their contents or results.

The cumulative distributions and statistics of

keystroke response time are shown in Figure 2. When

Mosh was conﬁdent enough to display its predictions,

the response was nearly instant. This occurred about

70% of the time. But many of the remaining keystrokes

were “navigation,” such as moving to the next e-mail

message, and Mosh cannot make a prediction in these

cases. For keystrokes it could not predict, Mosh’s

latency distribution was similar to that of SSH.

Mosh displayed an erroneous prediction, which it

ﬁxed within an RTT, for 0.9% of the keystrokes. These

generally occurred because of word-wrap (characters

that were printed near the end of a line get moved to the

next line at an unpredictable time).

Appropriateness of timing parameters

We also used the user traces to examine our choice of

timing parameters for the SSP sender. Here, we assess

the choice for the “collection interval”: the pause time

after receiving a write from the host, in order to collect

writes that may be following in close succession. We

disregard the possible beneﬁts of speculative local echo

and focus on network performance.

Figure 3 shows the artiﬁcial delay introduced by the

Mosh server on the applications’s screen updates in our

traces. Recall that the server obeys two rules: always

We subsequently “unfroze” and modiﬁed the Mosh algorithm in

response to the data, including moving the collection interval to 8 ms

and adding the server-side timeout and “echo ack” feature to reduce

false-negative predictions on slow servers (§3.2). These changes im-

proved Mosh in real-world use but would have little effect on this eval-

uation, because it used a long-delay link with an unloaded server.

wait at least the frame-rate interval after a previous

frame, and always wait at least the “collection interval”

after receiving an initial write from the application. This

parameter represents a tradeoff: too short could cause

the server to send a tiny initial datagram and then wait

before sending more data. But too long would hurt the

responsiveness of a typical session.

The ideal value depends on how often, empirically, ap-

plications tend to wait between their writes. We had ini-

tially guessed that a value of 15 ms would be reasonable;

based on the results and user feedback, we adjusted that

to 8 ms, the minimum of the curve.

Predictive echo on other networks

After tuning the algorithm as discussed above, we

evaluated the same user traces replayed over a wireless

Internet service loaded with a concurrent TCP download,

and a trans-oceanic wired link. Again, Mosh displayed

about 70% of the keystrokes instantly, sometimes (but

not always) increasing the variance in latencies seen by

the user. We summarize these results as follows:

Verizon LTE service in Cambridge, Mass., running

one concurrent TCP download:

Median latency Mean σ

SSH 5.36 s 5.03 s 2.14 s

Mosh < 0.005 s 1.70 s 2.60 s

MIT-Singapore Internet path (to Amazon EC2

data center):

Median latency Mean σ

SSH 273 ms 272 ms 9 ms

Mosh < 5 ms 86 ms 132 ms

Resilience to high packet loss

We also tested SSP’s resilience to packet loss without

the beneﬁt of predictive local echo. In general, SSP’s

delay-based rate control and ability to skip intermediate

states allow it to handle links with non-congestive packet

loss, which TCP was not designed to handle.

We set up a test network with a Linux-based router, us-

ing the netem tool to create an artiﬁcial RTT of 100 ms

and a 29% probability of i.i.d. packet loss in each di-

rection, resulting in 50% round-trip packet loss. As

expected, TCP

produces huge delays because of loss-

induced exponential backoffs:

Median Mean σ

SSH 0.416 s 16.8 s 52.2 s

Mosh (no predictions) 0.222 s 0.329 s 1.63 s

5 Related Work

GNU screen and OpenBSD tmux are popular “termi-

nal multiplexers” that allow the user to detach from and

Linux 2.6.32 default TCP (cubic)

Figure 3: Average protocol-induced delay from varying

collection interval (with frame interval of 250 ms)

0.1 1 10 100

Average delay (ms)

Collection interval after ﬁrst write (ms)

Mosh collection interval

later reattach to a terminal session. (Graphical remote-

desktop programs, such as VNC, also allow reconnec-

tion.) screen and tmux provide several other features,

such as multiplexing and scrollback buffers, and are of-

ten used concurrently with Mosh.

REX [4] is a remote execution protocol built atop the

Self-certifying File System [6]. It uses TCP, but provides

automatic roaming in some cases: when the client ﬁnds

that a TCP connection aborts or a connection timeout oc-

curs, it reinitiates the TCP connection and queues pend-

ing data in the mean time. However, it could take several

minutes or longer for a TCP connection timeout to occur,

especially if the client has no pending data of its own.

Mosh differs from terminal multiplexers and REX

in that its roaming is immediate and automatic, using

application-level timers that assess the state of connec-

tivity end-to-end. Mosh is also distinct in that it skips

over intermediate screen states, even while connected, to

accommodate high-latency or loss-prone paths.

Some BSD-style operating systems support the

LINEMODE option [2] for TELNET, in which character

echoing and line editing is performed by the client. Un-

fortunately, LINEMODE does not work with programs

that put the terminal into “raw” mode, including shells

like bash, and full-screen applications like emacs, vi, or

pine. SSH does not have an equivalent of LINEMODE.

SUPDUP [8] included a Local Editing Protocol in

which an entire text editor session could be executed lo-

cally and uploaded to the server in batches. SUPDUP re-

quired the host application to encode its interactive func-

tionality in the SUPDUP language. Mosh does not re-

quire modiﬁcations to host applications, but still handles

most typing and cursor movement keystrokes.

6 Conclusion

This paper presented the design, implementation, and

evaluation of Mosh, a mobile shell that performs well

over marginal networks. Mosh handles intermittent con-

nectivity and changes in IP addresses, and provides good

interactive performance over long-delay network paths.

In our empirical evaluation of 40 hours of keystroke ac-

tivity from six users, we found that mean and median

response times were dramatically reduced on several dif-

ferent types of connections. Mosh achieved this im-

provement by accurately predicting the response to 70%

of user keystrokes. Mosh’s wide adoption upon release

suggests that it fulﬁlls a previously unmet need among

mobile network users.

SSP is a relatively rare example of a gracefully-mobile

networking protocol. Today, many programs intended

for mobility, including e-mail and chat programs on pop-

ular smartphones, cannot cope gracefully with roaming

and intermittent connectivity: the very conditions pre-

sented by mobile networks. We believe many of these

applications would beneﬁt from SSP’s design principles.

7 Acknowledgments

We thank Nickolai Zeldovich and Chris Lesniewski-Laas

for helpful comments on this work. We also thank An-

ders Kaseorg, Quentin Smith, Richard Tibbetts, Keegan

McAllister, and the users who provided us with keystroke

traces. This work was supported in part by NSF grants

1040072 and 0721702.

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SSH connections require at least one round-trip as the keystroke has to be sent to the server to correctly render the next buffer. Mosh decouples this, providing client-side prediction and having the client repair incorrect predictions after synchronizing with the server. Arguably the most important feature of Mosh, perhaps even more important than the reduction of keystroke latency. Being able to freely roam between networks while maintaining a connection to the server *feels* like magic. The Mosh client decides how confident to be in a prediction based on the success of its past predictions. A low confidence prediction will not be shown to the user. Mosh's approach to the problem is simple: > Mosh performs predictive client-side echoing and line editing without any change to server software, and without regard to which application is running. Mosh makes remote servers feel more like the local computer, because most keystrokes are reﬂected immediately on the user’s display — even in full-screen programs like a text editor or mail reader. SSH operating in a character-at-a-time mode, having each echo and line editing operations occurring on the remote host results in a terrible user experience when using an unreliable network connection. Additionally, if the amount of lost packets is excessive the connection may be dropped and the entire terminal state will be lost, forcing the user to start from scratch or use a terminal multiplexer like tmux or screen. Mosh uses existing infrastructure for authentication and login, focusing only on solving the problem of terminal state prediction and synchronization, and roaming connections. Mosh is a remote terminal application like Secure Shell (SSH) with better support for connections over an unreliable network. Unlike SSH, Mosh allows roaming connections and speculative echoing of keystrokes. In these trials, Mosh was able to confidently predict 70% of the keystrokes, resulting in a nearly instant response to the user. Many of the remaining 30% of keystrokes included things like navigation using arrow keys or using shortcuts to change “views” in a program. For cases like this, Mosh's response times were similar to those of SSH.

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