### TL;DR **Groupthink:** is a mode of thinking that people enga...
You can learn more and find the report here: - [NASA - Rogers Comm...
> **Groupthink**: *"a mode of thinking that people engage in when t...
### The main symptoms of **Groupthink**. *(Janis had to spot all o...
Janis introduced the concept of groupthink through the popular proc...
#### A Schematic and Theoretical Analysis of Groupthink according t...
CHAPTER
18
Groupthink
of Irving Janis
๎€ก๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ถ๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ธ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎Š ๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š ๎€๎€จ๎€ธ๎๎€จ๎€ผ๎…๎Š๎€“๎€•๎€†๎Š ๎€’๎€–๎€•๎€”๎€†๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€พ๎€ป๎€จ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€พ๎€ฐ๎๎€ฟ๎€ฟ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š Challenger ๎€ฉ๎€ต๎€จ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š ๎€บ๎€ญ๎€ญ๎Š
๎€ญ๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ถ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ž๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎…๎Š ๎€ค๎€ป๎€จ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎Š๎€˜๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎Š๎€™๎€ต๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€จ๎€‹๎Š ๎€ค๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎…๎€‡๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€ช๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€พ๎Š๎€ต๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€†๎Š๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€ต๎ˆ
๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€พ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€จ๎€ซ๎๎€ต๎€ฟ๎€พ๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š๎€พ๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€บ๎€ต๎Š๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€ฑ๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š๎ƒ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€จ๎€พ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ช๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎ˆ
๎€ฏ๎€ผ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎Š๎€จ๎Š๎€ญ๎€ฑ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎…๎Š๎€ฌ๎„๎€ป๎€ต๎€บ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€†๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ช๎€จ๎€ป๎€พ๎๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎€ต๎๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€—๎€ฟ๎€ต๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎Š๎€ก๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€Œ๎Š
๎€ฅ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€จ๎€ต๎€ต๎Š๎€พ๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ช๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Š๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€ถ๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€†๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ป๎€จ๎€ผ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎๎€ต๎€จ๎€ผ๎€ต๎…๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎Š๎€˜๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€จ๎Š๎€Ÿ๎€ช๎€—๎๎ˆ
๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ฎ๎€ญ๎€ฌ๎€†๎Š๎€พ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€ช๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ธ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€๎Š๎€™๎€บ๎€ผ๎Š๎€ถ๎€จ๎€ธ๎…๎Š๎€—๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎€จ๎€ธ๎€พ๎€†๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎ŠChallenger ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€จ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎Š๎€ถ๎€จ๎€ผ๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€จ๎Š๎€ต๎€บ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€จ๎€ฎ๎€ญ๎€จ๎€ฑ๎€ผ๎Š๎ƒ๎€ฑ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€พ๎€ป๎€จ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€Ž๎Š๎€—๎€พ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎…๎Š๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ผ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ถ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€พ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ต๎€ต๎€บ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎€†๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ผ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎…๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎๎€ต๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฐ๎€จ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ˆ๎€พ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎๎€ต๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฐ๎€จ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ˆ๎€จ๎‚๎€บ๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎€Ž๎Š
๎€ข๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎Š ๎€ฃ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€จ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎…๎Š ๎€จ๎€ป๎€ป๎€บ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š ๎€จ๎Š ๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ช๎€ฟ๎Š ๎€ช๎€บ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎ˆ
๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ฉ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ช๎€จ๎๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€„๎€พ๎€…๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€จ๎€ช๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€Œ๎Š๎€ฅ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎Š๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ผ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ญ๎€บ๎๎€ผ๎Š๎€ถ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€พ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎‰
๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€บ๎€ธ๎…๎Š๎€ญ๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ถ๎Š๎€ ๎€—๎€ค๎€—๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎€ญ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ต๎€พ๎€†๎Š๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ช๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฒ๎€น๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€†๎Š๎€จ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€จ๎๎€ฟ๎€พ๎€†๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎…๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฌ๎€ต๎€พ๎€ฌ๎Š๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎Š
๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฟ๎Š
๎€ฐ๎€จ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ด๎€ธ๎€บ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€จ๎€ฉ๎€บ๎๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ญ๎€จ๎€ฑ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€Ž๎Š๎€›๎€ธ๎Š๎€จ๎Š๎€ญ๎€ฑ๎‚๎€ฌ๎€‰๎‚๎€บ๎€ต๎๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎๎€ฉ๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎‰
๎€ป๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฟ๎€†๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ต๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ญ๎€ฑ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€จ๎€ผ๎…๎Š๎€ช๎€จ๎๎€พ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€จ๎€ช๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎Š
๎€จ๎€พ๎Š๎€จ๎Š๎€ญ๎€จ๎€ฑ๎€ต๎๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ณ๎€บ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎ƒ๎€บ๎Š๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ช๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€จ๎€ต๎€ต๎€บ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฏ๎€จ๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€ช๎€จ๎€ป๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ซ๎๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€๎€ฉ๎๎€ฝ๎€Œ๎€‚๎Š ๎€ฆ๎€บ๎€ต๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ช๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ญ๎๎€ฌ๎€ต๎Š๎€พ๎€ป๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€บ๎๎€ฟ๎Š๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€จ๎Š ๎€ผ๎๎€ฉ๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎Š
๎€‘๎€‰๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎Š๎€ญ๎€จ๎€ฑ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ต๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ณ๎€บ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€
๎€ฅ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€จ๎‚๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎‡๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎๎€ต๎€ซ๎Š๎๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎€พ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ƒ๎€พ
๎€ญ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€Œ๎Š๎€—๎€ญ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎Š๎€จ๎€ต๎€ต๎€†๎Š๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎…๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ด๎€ธ๎€บ๎ƒ๎€พ๎Š๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ป๎€ป๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€พ๎Š๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š๎…๎€บ๎๎Š๎€ป๎€บ๎๎€ผ๎Š๎€ฏ๎€จ๎€พ๎€บ๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š
๎€จ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€บ๎€ป๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€ญ๎€ต๎€จ๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€Œ๎Š ๎€ง๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ป๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€ป๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ญ๎€บ๎๎€น๎€ซ๎Š๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฎ๎€ญ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎๎€ต๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š ๎€ญ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€ถ๎Š ๎ƒ๎€จ๎€พ๎Š ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎…๎Š ๎€ ๎€—๎€ค๎€—๎Š๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ซ๎Š
๎€ต๎€จ๎๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎ŠChallenger ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎Š๎ƒ๎€จ๎€พ๎Š๎€ฏ๎€บ๎€บ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€พ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€พ๎Š
๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ƒ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€พ๎€จ๎€ญ๎€ฌ๎€๎Š๎€œ๎€ธ๎Š๎€จ๎€ซ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€ฌ๎€ช๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ต๎€†๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ท๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€จ๎€ต๎€พ๎€บ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ต๎๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€จ๎Š๎€ฐ๎€ฑ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ต๎…๎Š๎€ญ๎€ต๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ป๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€พ๎Š๎ƒ๎€จ๎€พ๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€ป๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฟ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ฉ๎๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎Š๎€ช๎€จ๎๎€พ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€จ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€Œ๎Š ๎€˜๎€บ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎๎€ธ๎€ฑ๎€ช๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€†๎Š๎€จ๎€พ๎Š ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎€ต๎Š๎€จ๎€พ๎Š๎€ช๎€บ๎€ถ๎€ฉ๎๎€พ๎€๎€บ๎€ธ๎€†๎Š๎ƒ๎€จ๎€พ๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€ป๎€บ๎€ธ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€ฉ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ผ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€ผ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎…๎€Ž๎Š
THE CHALLENGER LAUNCH: A MODEL OF DEFECTIVE DECISION MAKING
๎€—๎€พ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ป๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎Š๎€ช๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ผ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€™๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฟ๎Š๎€ฃ๎€ฌ๎€จ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€พ๎Š๎€ฃ๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฑ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Š๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ผ๎Š๎€ ๎€—๎€ค๎€—๎€†๎Š๎€๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€Ÿ๎€บ๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎Š
๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ซ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎๎€ต๎€ฟ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€จ๎๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฑ๎€ฟ๎…๎Š๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎€จ๎€ป๎€ป๎€ผ๎€บ๎‚๎€ฌ๎Š๎€บ๎€ผ๎Š๎€พ๎€ช๎€ผ๎๎€ฉ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š๎€พ๎€ฐ๎๎€ฟ๎€ฟ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ถ๎€ฑ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฑ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€Ž๎Š๎€š๎€ฌ๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š๎€บ๎€ธ๎Š
๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€จ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎€พ๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€พ๎Š ๎€บ๎€ญ๎Š ๎€ถ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎Š ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ž๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎†๎€†๎Š๎€๎€บ๎€ฐ๎€ธ๎€พ๎€บ๎€ธ๎€†๎Š๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎Š ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ต๎€ต๎Š ๎€ค๎€ป๎€จ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎Š
๎€˜๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€†๎Š ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎Š๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎๎€ผ๎€ธ๎Š ๎€ช๎€บ๎€ธ๎€พ๎๎€ต๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎€ซ๎Š ๎ƒ๎€ฑ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€พ๎Š ๎€ญ๎€ผ๎€บ๎€ถ๎Š๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎Š ๎€ช๎€บ๎€ถ๎€ป๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ฑ๎€ฌ๎€พ๎Š ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€ฟ๎Š ๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€Š
235
Janis, I. (1991). Groupthink. In E. Griffin (Ed.) A First Look at
Communication Theory (pp. 235 - 246). New York: McGrawHill.
236
I
๎€…๎€Ž๎€‹๎€๎€Œ๎€‘๎€๎€Š๎€„๎€‘๎€๎€๎€‚๎€ˆ๎€‡๎€ƒ๎€‘๎€ƒ๎€‹๎€‰๎€‰๎€๎€Š๎€†๎€ƒ๎€๎€๎€†๎€‹๎€Š๎€‘
FIGURE 18.1
The Challenger Disaster
๎€ถ๎€ช๎€จ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ Challenger's ๎€ถ๎€น๎€ฃ๎€ถ๎€ฝ๎€ถ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ฐ๎€ถ๎€ˆ๎ƒ๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ง๎€ซ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎ƒApollo 13 ๎€ฅ๎€ต๎€ข๎€ฐ๎€ข๎€ธ๎€ช๎€๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ง๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ข๎€ฏ๎ƒ
๎€ด๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ช๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€๎€จ๎€ณ๎€‹๎€ฑ๎€ณ๎€„๎€จ๎€ณ๎€‚๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€น๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ต๎€ณ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎€น๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€Ž๎ƒ๎€œ๎€•๎€ž๎€•๎ƒ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฏ๎€ป๎€ข๎€ฝ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ข๎€ฎ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ถ๎€ซ๎
๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎ƒ
๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ท๎ƒ๎€๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€น๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ฉ๎€ณ๎€น๎€ฏ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ฏ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ซ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ซ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ฅ๎€ณ๎€น๎€ฃ๎€ธ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ซ๎€ธ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ข๎€ง๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎€ฝ๎€ˆ๎€‚๎€๎ƒ
๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ฅ๎€ข๎€ฝ๎ƒ ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€ง๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€น๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎€ƒ๎ƒ ๎€›๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ธ๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎ƒ ๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ซ๎€ณ๎€ฎ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎ƒ ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ถ๎ƒ ๎€ป๎€ข๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ธ๎ƒ ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ
๎€ง๎€ฏ๎€ซ๎€จ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€จ๎€ฉ๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ถ๎€ฎ๎€ฝ๎€Š๎ƒ๎€•๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€ฐ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ถ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€ซ๎€ฃ๎€ฏ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ง๎€ณ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ง๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ณ๎€ค๎€ฎ๎€ฆ๎€ท๎ƒ
๎€ฃ๎€ณ๎€ณ๎€ถ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฃ๎€ณ๎€น๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€ฏ๎€ณ๎€ป๎€„๎€ง๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€๎€ฌ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ข๎€ท๎€น๎€ต๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ข๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ง๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ข๎€ถ๎€ท๎ƒ
๎€ง๎€ณ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€น๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎€‰๎ƒ๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€Œ๎€…๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€ฏ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€บ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ถ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€ฏ๎€ณ๎€ป๎ƒ๎€”๎€‘๎ƒ
๎€ฅ๎€ฆ๎€จ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€˜๎€ข๎€ฉ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ซ๎€ธ๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ช๎€ณ๎€ฎ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎ƒ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€๎€ณ๎€จ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€–๎€ณ๎€ช๎€ถ๎€ญ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ท๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ถ๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€ง๎€ซ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎€จ๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎‚
๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€Œ๎€†๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ณ๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€ฏ๎ƒ๎€จ๎€ข๎€ด๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ช๎€ท๎€ฉ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ข๎€ธ๎€น๎€ต๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€๎€๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ข๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ซ๎€ฎ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€๎€ท๎€ต๎€ฝ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ณ๎ƒ
๎€ถ๎€ฉ๎€ณ๎€บ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ค๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€ช๎€ฑ๎€ท๎€ณ๎ƒ๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ต๎€ข๎€ค๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€บ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ถ๎€น๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€‚๎€’๎ƒ
๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€Œ๎€„๎€ต๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€ฏ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ถ๎€ถ๎€ซ๎€ง๎€ซ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ต๎€ช๎€ท๎€ซ๎€ค๎€ข๎€ฏ๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ณ๎€ค๎€ฎ๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎ƒ
๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎€ท๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎€๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ง๎€ข๎€ช๎€ฏ๎€น๎€ต๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ท๎€‡๎€ป๎€ช๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ณ๎€น๎€ธ๎ƒ๎€ฃ๎€ข๎€ค๎€ฎ๎€„๎€น๎€ด๎€‡๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€น๎€ฏ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ข๎€น๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ข๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ณ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ซ๎€ง๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€บ๎€ฆ๎
๎€ฉ๎€ซ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ซ๎€ง๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€ธ๎ƒ๎€ง๎€ข๎€ซ๎€ฏ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎€‰๎€‚๎€“๎ƒ๎€ก๎€ฆ๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ช๎€ณ๎€ฎ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎ƒ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ข๎€ซ๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ถ๎€ข๎€ง๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎€ฝ๎ƒ
๎€ซ๎€ถ๎€ถ๎€น๎€ฆ๎ƒ ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎ƒ ๎€ข๎ƒ ๎€ท๎€ฆ๎€ฏ๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ง๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ƒ๎ƒ ๎€œ๎€•๎€ž๎€•๎ƒ ๎€ด๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ถ๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฏ๎ƒ ๎€ฅ๎€ช๎€ถ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€น๎€ฑ๎€ท๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ช๎€ต๎ƒ ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎ƒ ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฅ๎ƒ
๎€น๎€ต๎€จ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ฐ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ณ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€ช๎€ฅ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ช๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎€ฐ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€ฅ๎€ข๎€ท๎€ซ๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ˆ๎ƒ๎€•๎€ง๎€ท๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ณ๎€ง๎€ง๎€„๎€ฏ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ข๎€น๎€ค๎€น๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ช๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎ƒ
๎€ค๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ฆ๎€ผ๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€น๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€บ๎€ฆ๎€ถ๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎€Ÿ๎€ฉ๎€ซ๎€ณ๎€ฎ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎ƒ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€จ๎€ซ๎€ฑ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ถ๎ƒ ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€บ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ถ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ช๎€ต๎ƒ ๎€๎€ฑ๎€ณ๎€„๎€จ๎€ณ๎€‚๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ณ๎€ถ๎€ซ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฅ๎ƒ
๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฑ๎€ณ๎€น๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ซ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ถ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎€ช๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ณ๎€ค๎€ฎ๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎€ธ๎€ณ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ป๎€ข๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€ฅ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ณ๎ƒ๎€ง๎€ฏ๎€พ๎€Š๎ƒ๎€ ๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€š๎€ฆ๎€ฒ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎€ฟ๎€ƒ๎ƒ
๎€™๎€ณ๎€ฉ๎€ฑ๎€ถ๎€ณ๎€ฑ๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎€ข๎€ฑ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€›๎€ข๎€ต๎€ถ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ฏ๎€ฏ๎ƒ๎€ž๎€ด๎€ข๎€ค๎€ฆ๎ƒ๎€—๎€ฆ๎€ฑ๎€ท๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ฅ๎€ช๎€ต๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ธ๎€ณ๎€ต๎€ถ๎ƒ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ต๎ƒ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ต๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€ง๎€ซ๎€ฆ๎€ฅ๎ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ข๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎ƒChallenger
GROUPTHINK
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๎‡๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€บ๎€ท๎€ด๎€ต๎ƒ๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎‰๎€…๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ฑ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€พ๎…๎ƒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€๎€†๎๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎‚๎€Š๎Ž๎€”๎ƒ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž
๎ƒ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€บ๎€ท๎€ด๎€ต๎ƒ๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎‚๎‚๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎†๎€ท๎€ฐ๎‡๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€ถ๎€ฌ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€…๎Ž๎€œ๎€ฐ๎‚๎‚๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€Ÿ๎€พ๎€พ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎๎Š๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎‚๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎Œ
๎€ป๎€ท๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎„๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‚๎€ต๎…๎ƒ๎„๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‡๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€๎€”๎€†๎€ข๎€ž๎€‹๎€‚๎Ž
๎€›๎๎†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎€œ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎‚๎€…๎Ž๎€ซ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‚๎€พ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ฟ๎‚๎Š๎€ฎ๎€ต๎€พ๎€ป๎€พ๎€ด๎€ท๎‚๎„๎€…๎Ž๎‡๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฎ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎„๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎‡๎€ท๎ƒ๎€ต๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€๎…๎€ฐ๎‚๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž
๎€ต๎€พ๎‡๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€น๎€ฝ๎€พ๎‡๎€บ๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎€ด๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎๎„๎‚๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎…๎€บ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€น๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‚๎…๎€ฎ๎€ต๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎๎๎€ท๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎‚๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€Š๎Ž
๎€™๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‡๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ท๎๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€ท๎€ฐ๎†๎€พ๎…๎‚๎Ž๎€ฐ๎๎๎€พ๎๎Ž๎‡๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ท๎‚๎€พ๎€บ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎‚๎„๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€บ๎€ท๎€ผ๎€ท๎„๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž
๎ƒ๎€Ž๎€ ๎€”๎€ฅ๎€”๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎‚๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎‚๎€…๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎๎€ฟ๎€พ๎๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ญ๎€พ๎€ฌ๎๎€ฏ๎๎€พ๎€พ๎€ผ๎‚๎€…๎Ž๎€พ๎๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎„๎„๎€ฐ๎๎‚๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ต๎€ฝ๎€ท๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎…๎๎€ฐ๎€Š๎Ž๎€š๎€ฐ๎Ž
๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎€ป๎€ท๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎…๎€บ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎‚๎€ฟ๎€พ๎ƒ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‚๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€ฏ๎Š๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ท๎€ฎ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Ž๎‡๎€พ๎๎€น๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€พ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎๎Ž๎ƒ๎๎€ฌ๎€ด๎€ท๎€ฎ๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎Œ
๎‚๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎‚๎€Œ๎Ž๎€™๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‡๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎€ฌ๎€ป๎€ป๎Š๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎„๎€ฐ๎๎€ฐ๎‚๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ช๎€ต๎€ท๎„๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€™๎€พ๎…๎‚๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€ท๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฎ๎€พ๎‚๎€‡๎€ค๎€พ๎€พ๎‚๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎€บ๎ƒ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ผ๎Œ
๎€ฟ๎€ป๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎€ฎ๎Š๎Ž๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎€ฒ๎€พ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž ๎€ฃ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎๎€บ๎Ž๎€š๎€ฌ๎๎€ญ๎€พ๎๎€…๎Ž๎€ฆ๎๎…๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎†๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ก๎€พ๎๎ƒ๎€ต๎Ž๎€ž๎€พ๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€…๎Ž๎€ž๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Š๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž
๎€•๎€ฌ๎Š๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ฃ๎€ท๎€ด๎‚๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€ท๎€ฌ๎‚๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€…๎Ž๎€œ๎€พ๎€ต๎€ฝ๎‚๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€ป๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฉ๎€ท๎€ฐ๎ƒ๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎Ž๎€ช๎€ฌ๎๎€…๎Ž๎€ ๎€ท๎ˆ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€ช๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎๎€ด๎€ฌ๎„๎€ฐ๎Ž
๎€ญ๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€น๎€†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€…๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ค๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€›๎๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€†๎€–๎€พ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎๎€ฌ๎Ž๎‚๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎†๎€ฐ๎๎…๎€ฟ๎‚๎€Š๎Ž๎€›๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€œ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎‡๎€ฐ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎Š๎Ž
๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‡๎€พ๎…๎€บ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ฟ๎๎€พ๎€ญ๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€บ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€บ๎‚๎€พ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€–๎€ป๎€ท๎€ฝ๎„๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎€ฟ๎๎€พ๎†๎€ฌ๎€ป๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎๎€ฌ๎€ท๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€•๎๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ฎ๎€ต๎Ž
๎€—๎€ฌ๎†๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ท๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Ž ๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ผ๎€ฟ๎€พ๎…๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€…๎Ž ๎€ง๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ฌ๎‚๎€Œ๎Ž ๎€œ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎‚๎Ž ๎€ฏ๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฝ๎€ƒ๎ƒ๎Ž ๎๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ฌ๎๎€ฏ๎Ž ๎€ฎ๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฐ๎€ฒ๎Ž ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎…๎ƒ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž ๎€พ๎๎Ž
๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ท๎๎Ž ๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎†๎€ท๎‚๎€พ๎๎‚๎Ž ๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž ๎‚๎ƒ๎…๎€ฟ๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€…๎Ž ๎€บ๎€ฌ๎‹๎‰๎€…๎Ž ๎€พ๎๎Ž ๎€ฐ๎†๎€ท๎€บ๎€Š๎Ž ๎€ค๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎๎€…๎Ž ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž ๎‚๎€ฌ๎‡๎Ž ๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎Ž ๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž ๎†๎€ท๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ผ๎‚๎Ž ๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž
๎€๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€น๎€Š๎€‚๎Ž
GROUPTHINK: A CONCURRENCE-SEEKING TENDENCY
๎€๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€พ๎๎€ท๎€ด๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€บ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฒ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Žg๎€‡upthink ๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€พ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€น๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎„๎Ž๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎€ด๎€ฌ๎€ด๎€ฐ๎Ž
๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎‡๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฌ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฐ๎€ฟ๎€บ๎Š๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎†๎€พ๎€บ๎†๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ˆ๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎€…๎Ž๎‡๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎๎‚๎€ƒ๎Ž
๎‚๎ƒ๎๎€ท๎†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎‚๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€พ๎๎Ž๎…๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎€ผ๎€ท๎„๎Š๎Ž๎€พ๎†๎€ฐ๎๎๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ท๎๎Ž๎€ผ๎€พ๎ƒ๎€ท๎†๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€ท๎‚๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€ป๎€ป๎Š๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎€ฟ๎๎€ฌ๎€ท๎‚๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€บ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎๎Œ
๎€ฝ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎…๎๎‚๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€Œ๎€‚
๎€๎Ž
๎€”๎€ฎ๎€ฎ๎€พ๎๎€ฏ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎€ต๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฒ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ท๎„๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€…๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€น๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฎ๎€ฎ๎…๎๎‚๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ป๎Š
๎‡๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎‚๎‚๎Ž๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ต๎€ท๎€ด๎€ต๎€Œ๎Ž๎€›๎„๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€๎…๎€ท๎๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎๎‚๎Ž๎‚๎€ต๎€ฌ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎‚๎ƒ๎๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎€๎‡๎€ฐ๎€†๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎€ฐ๎€บ๎Œ
๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎€‚๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž ๎‚๎€พ๎€บ๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎๎€ท๎„๎Š๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ท๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎„๎€ฌ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎‚๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฟ๎‚๎Ž๎‡๎€ท๎„๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€บ๎Ž
๎€ฎ๎€พ๎‚๎ƒ๎‚๎€Œ๎Ž ๎€ช๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž ๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ป๎€บ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ด๎…๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎Ž ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž ๎€ฌ๎Ž ๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€น๎Ž ๎€ผ๎€พ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€…๎Ž ๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Š๎Ž ๎€ฌ๎…๎„๎€พ๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€บ๎Š๎Ž
๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎€ฟ๎€ป๎Š๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€๎€ฟ๎๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฐ๎๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฌ๎๎€ผ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Š๎€‚๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎‚๎ƒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎๎Š๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎‚๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎€Œ๎€‚๎€๎Ž
๎€œ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ฟ๎€ท๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎…๎๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€น๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฌ๎†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€๎‡๎€ฌ๎๎€ผ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€บ๎…๎€ญ๎€ญ๎Š๎Ž๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ผ๎€พ๎‚๎€ฟ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎๎€ฐ๎€‹๎€‚๎Ž
๎€ง๎€ต๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฎ๎๎€ท๎€ฟ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€ฟ๎„๎…๎๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ด๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€พ๎๎€ท๎ƒ๎Š๎Ž๎€ญ๎…๎‚๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎‚๎‚๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎‡๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž
๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ฒ๎๎€ท๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎‚๎€น๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ต๎€ท๎€ผ๎Ž๎‡๎€ต๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€ป๎…๎€ญ๎‚๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎‡๎€พ๎…๎€ป๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€บ๎€ท๎€น๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎€ธ๎€พ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎‡๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€ท๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎„๎€ฐ๎€ด๎๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎
๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎€ท๎ƒ๎Š๎€‹๎Ž๎€™๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎‚๎‡๎€ฐ๎๎€’๎Ž๎€๎€ข๎€ฝ๎€บ๎Š๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ฐ๎€Œ๎Ž๎€›๎€ƒ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€บ๎€ท๎€น๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€พ๎Ž๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฟ๎€ฌ๎๎ƒ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€„๎€ด๎€พ๎€พ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ป๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ญ๎€พ๎Š๎‚๎Ž
๎€ฎ๎€ป๎…๎€ญ๎€Œ๎€ƒ๎Ž ๎€ง๎€ต๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎‡๎€ต๎€ฐ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€„๎€ท๎€ฝ๎‚๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎๎€ƒ๎Ž๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฌ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€Š๎€‚
7
๎€Ÿ๎€พ๎‚๎ƒ๎Ž๎‚๎„๎…๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎‚๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎Ž๎€ฟ๎๎€พ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎‚๎‚๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ด๎€ฌ๎๎€ฏ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎๎‚๎€ƒ๎Ž๎€ผ๎…๎ƒ๎…๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎„๎๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎„๎€พ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€ต๎Ž
๎€พ๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎๎Ž๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎‚๎‚๎€ฐ๎ƒ๎€Š๎Ž๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎๎†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฅ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎‡๎€…๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€จ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎๎‚๎€ท๎ƒ๎Š๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€˜๎€บ๎€พ๎๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ฟ๎‚๎Š๎€ฎ๎€ต๎€พ๎€ป๎€พ๎€ด๎€ท๎‚๎ƒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž
๎€ฌ๎…๎„๎€ต๎€พ๎๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ป๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎ƒ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€ท๎€ฐ๎€บ๎€ฏ๎€…๎Ž๎‚๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎†๎€ท๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€ท๎€พ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฒ๎€พ๎๎€ผ๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎Ž๎€ด๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Œ
๎€ฐ๎๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ต๎Š๎€ฟ๎€พ๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎„๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฌ๎‚๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎‡๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฟ๎๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฏ๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎๎€ฎ๎€ต๎Ž๎‚๎…๎€ฟ๎€ฟ๎€พ๎๎ƒ๎€“๎Ž๎€๎€™๎€ท๎€ด๎€ต๎€‰๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž
๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฌ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ผ๎€พ๎๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎ƒ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€บ๎€พ๎‡๎€†๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ด๎๎€พ๎…๎€ฟ๎‚๎Ž๎€ท๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฌ๎€ฎ๎€ต๎€ท๎€ฐ๎†๎€ท๎€ฝ๎€ด๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ท๎๎Ž๎๎€ฐ๎‚๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€ฎ๎Œ
๎ƒ๎€ท๎†๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€ด๎€พ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎‚๎€‹๎€‚๎€‘๎Ž๎€•๎…๎ƒ๎Ž๎€œ๎€ฌ๎€ฝ๎€ท๎‚๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎‚๎€ท๎‚๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€บ๎Š๎Ž๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ป๎€ฏ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฌ๎ƒ๎Ž๎„๎€ต๎€ฐ๎Ž๎€๎‚๎…๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎๎€ด๎€ป๎…๎€ฐ๎€‚๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎Ž๎‚๎€พ๎€บ๎€ท๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎๎€ท๎„๎Š๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฌ๎„๎Ž
๎€ญ๎€พ๎€ฝ๎€ฏ๎‚๎Ž๎€ฟ๎€ฐ๎€พ๎€ฟ๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Ž๎„๎€พ๎€ด๎€ฐ๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎๎Ž๎€พ๎€ฒ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎Ž๎€ฎ๎€ฌ๎…๎‚๎€ฐ๎‚๎Ž๎ƒ๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ท๎๎Ž๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎€ฝ๎ƒ๎€ฌ๎€บ๎Ž๎€ฟ๎๎€พ๎€ฎ๎€ฐ๎‚๎‚๎Ž๎„๎€พ๎Ž๎€ด๎€ฐ๎ƒ๎Ž๎‚๎ƒ๎…๎€ฎ๎€น๎€’๎Ž
๎€ˆ๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€•๎€—๎€š๎€๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€•๎€‘๎€‰๎€Š๎€‘๎€”๎€‘๎€๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€–๎€Œ๎€ฆ๎€๎€œ๎€™๎€š๎€‘๎€๎€ฆ๎€Œ๎€๎€ฆ๎€‹๎€—๎€›๎€™๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€•๎€—๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€•๎€๎€•๎€Š๎€๎€›๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€—๎€Ž๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€ฆ๎€™๎€—๎€”๎€‘๎€‹๎€ฃ๎€„๎€•๎€‰๎€’๎€‘๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€‘๎€–๎€ค
๎€๎€›๎€—๎€Ÿ๎€™๎€‚๎€ฆ๎€๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€๎€›๎€๎€‰๎€ž๎€๎€›๎€ฆ๎€‘๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€Œ๎€‰๎€–๎€๎€๎€›๎€ฆ๎€๎€๎€‰๎€๎€ฆ๎€‘๎€–๎€Œ๎€๎€™๎€๎€–๎€Œ๎€๎€–๎€ž๎€ฆ๎€‹๎€›๎€‘๎€ž๎€‘๎€‹๎€‰๎€“๎€ฆ๎€๎€๎€‘๎€–๎€’๎€‘๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€‘๎€“๎€“๎€ฆ๎€Š๎€๎€ฆ๎€›๎€๎€™๎€“๎€‰๎€‹๎€๎€Œ๎€ฆ
๎€Š๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€๎€›๎€—๎€Ÿ๎€™๎€๎€๎€‘๎€–๎€’๎€‡๎€ฆ๎€…๎€…๎€…๎€ฆ๎€ˆ๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€œ๎€—๎€‹๎€‘๎€‰๎€“๎€ฆ๎€‹๎€—๎€–๎€œ๎€ž๎€›๎€‰๎€‘๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€‹๎€—๎€–๎€œ๎€‘๎€œ๎€๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€—๎€Ž๎€ฆ๎€๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€•๎€๎€•๎€Š๎€๎€›๎€œ๎€๎€ฆ๎€œ๎€๎€š๎€—๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€‘๎€œ๎€๎€ฆ๎€ž๎€—๎€ฆ
๎€™๎€›๎€๎€œ๎€๎€š๎€ ๎€๎€ฆ๎€ž๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€๎€‰๎€š๎€•๎€˜๎€–๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€—๎€Ž๎€ฆ๎€ž๎€๎€๎€ฆ๎€๎€š๎€—๎€Ÿ๎€™๎€ƒ๎€ฆ๎€ข๎€๎€‘๎€‹๎€๎€ฆ๎€‘๎€–๎€‹๎€“๎€‘๎€–๎€๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€ž๎€๎€๎€•๎€ฆ๎€๎€—๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€ก๎€—๎€‘๎€Œ๎€ฆ๎€‹๎€›๎€๎€‰๎€ž๎€‘๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€–๎€ฃ๎€ฆ๎€Œ๎€‘๎€œ๎€ฅ
๎€‹๎€—๎€š๎€Œ๎€‰๎€–๎€๎€ฆ๎€‰๎€›๎€๎€Ÿ๎€•๎€๎€–๎€๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€—๎€›๎€ฆ๎€œ๎€‹๎€๎€‘๎€œ๎€•๎€œ๎€†
9
238
๎€…๎€๎€‹๎€๎€Œ๎€๎€๎€Š๎€„๎€๎€Œ๎€๎€‚๎€ˆ๎€‡๎€ƒ๎€๎€ƒ๎€‹๎€‰๎€‰๎€๎€Š๎€†๎€ƒ๎€๎€Ž๎€†๎€‹๎€Š๎€
๎€—๎€›๎€จ๎€ค๎€ญ๎€ธ ๎€ฒ๎€›๎€ญ๎€ธ ๎€๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€จ๎€๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€›๎€ฏ๎€ธ ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ ๎€๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€๎€Ÿ๎€„๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€Ÿ๎€ฅ๎€ค๎€จ๎€ก๎€ธ ๎€ฏ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€ž๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€๎€ด๎€ธ ๎€ฉ๎€ ๎€ธ ๎€๎€ฆ๎€ฉ๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€…๎€ฅ๎€จ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ธ
๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€๎€›๎€จ๎€ธ๎€๎€›๎€ฐ๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ง๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎€ง๎€›๎€ฅ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ค๎€จ๎€ ๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ž๎€Ÿ๎€๎€ค๎€ญ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ญ๎€‡๎€ธ
SYMPTOMS OF GROUPTHINK
๎€š๎€ข๎€›๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€›๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ค๎€ก๎€จ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€›๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ฉ๎€ด๎€›๎€ฆ๎€ฏ๎€ด๎€ธ๎€ข๎€›๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€๎€›๎€ฐ๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€ง๎€Ÿ๎€ง๎€œ๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ช๎€ธ๎€ค๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎€›๎€ธ๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€ถ
๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ค๎€จ๎€ฅ๎€ธ๎€ง๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€ฏ๎€›๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ด๎€’๎€ธ๎€˜๎€›๎€จ๎€ค๎€ฎ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€Ÿ๎€ค๎€ก๎€ข๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ด๎€ง๎€ช๎€ฏ๎€ฉ๎€ง๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€›๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ข๎€ฉ๎€ฒ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€›๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€Ÿ๎€ฅ๎€ท
๎€ค๎€จ๎€ก๎€ธ๎€ข๎€›๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ ๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€ธ๎€›๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€›๎€ด๎€ˆ๎€ธ ๎€™๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ ๎€ ๎€ค๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฒ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€Ÿ๎€ง๎€ธ๎€ ๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ง๎€ธ ๎€ฉ๎€ฑ๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ ๎€ค๎€ž๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€๎€Ÿ๎€ธ ๎€ค๎€จ๎€ธ ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ
๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฒ๎€Ÿ๎€ญ๎€ญ๎€‰๎€ธ๎€™๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€จ๎€Ÿ๎€ณ๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€›๎€ค๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€ ๎€ฆ๎€Ÿ๎€๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€จ๎€Ÿ๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€ญ๎€ค๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ง๎€Ÿ๎€ง๎€œ๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฐ๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎€ฑ๎€ค๎€Ÿ๎€ฒ๎€ธ
๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€œ๎€ฆ๎€Ÿ๎€ง๎€ˆ๎€ธ๎€™๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ ๎€ค๎€จ๎€›๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎€ ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€›๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ค๎€ก๎€จ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ก๎€ธ๎€๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€ ๎€ฉ๎€ฌ๎€ง๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ด๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€ญ๎€ญ๎€ฐ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฒ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ค๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ
๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ฐ๎€ช๎€‰๎€ธ๎€–๎€‚๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ฐ๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€›๎€ฏ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ง๎€›๎€จ๎€ด๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ด๎€ง๎€ช๎€ฏ๎€ฉ๎€ง๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฒ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ธ๎€ซ๎€ฐ๎€ฉ๎€ฏ๎€Ÿ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ ๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ง๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธReport of the
Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle ๎€”๎€ข๎€›๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€ก๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ธDisaster.10
๎€‹๎€Š Illusion of Invulnerability. ๎€•๎€Ÿ๎€ญ๎€ช๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฆ๎€›๎€ฐ๎€จ๎€๎€ข๎€ช๎€›๎€ž๎€ธ๎€ ๎€ค๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€›๎€ฏ๎€ธ ๎€ฅ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎€Ÿ
๎€›๎€ญ๎€ฏ๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€จ๎€›๎€ฐ๎€ฏ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ค๎€จ๎€ธ๎€Œ๎€‘๎€๎€๎€ธ๎€›๎€จ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€๎€ฆ๎€ฉ๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€๎€›๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ธ๎€ฉ๎€ ๎€ธ๎€“๎€ช๎€ฉ๎€ฆ๎€ฆ๎€ฉ๎€ธ๎€๎€Ž๎€ƒ๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€“๎€ง๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ค๎€๎€›๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ญ๎€ช๎€›๎€๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฌ๎€ฉ๎€ก๎€ฌ๎€›๎€ง
๎€ข๎€›๎€ž๎€ธ๎€จ๎€Ÿ๎€ฑ๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ธ๎€Ÿ๎€ณ๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ค๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€›๎€จ๎€ธ๎€ค๎€จ๎€…๎€ ๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ก๎€ข๎€ฏ๎€ธ๎€ ๎€›๎€ฏ๎€›๎€ฆ๎€ค๎€ฏ๎€ต๎€‡๎€ธ๎€š๎€ฃ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€ธ๎€Ÿ๎€จ๎€ก๎€ค๎€จ๎€Ÿ๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€ญ๎€ธ๎€ฌ๎€›๎€ค๎€ญ๎€Ÿ๎€ž๎€ธ๎€ฏ๎€ข๎€Ÿ๎€ธ๎€ช๎€ฉ๎€ญ๎€ญ๎€ค๎€œ๎€ค๎€ฆ๎€†
The book contains a cartoon at this location. Permission has been
granted only for use in the original print version of the book.
GROUPTHINK
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๎€ผ๎Š๎๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ฐ๎‰๎Š๎ˆ๎…๎†๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎”๎€‘๎€…๎ˆ๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎€ฑ๎๎…๎๎€…๎€ฑ๎๎€„๎”๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎”๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎„๎€ฐ๎€น๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎€ค๎€ด๎…๎ˆ๎€น๎€ด๎”๎€ฅ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ณ๎๎”๎„๎…๎„๎€ฒ๎€บ๎€ฐ๎๎€ฐ๎„๎Š๎๎๎”
๎†๎…๎€ผ๎„๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎…๎‹๎Š๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฝ๎‰๎”๎ˆ๎€ผ๎‰๎€๎”๎๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎€๎Š๎ˆ๎‹๎€ด๎”๎…๎€ต๎” ๎€ด๎Œ๎€ด๎ˆ๎๎”๎…๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎€ต๎‚๎€ผ๎€น๎€บ๎Š๎”๎๎€ด๎”๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Œ๎€ด๎”๎€บ๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎€‰๎€‚๎”๎€ง๎€ฐ๎„๎€ผ๎‰๎”
๎‰๎‹๎ƒ๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ผ๎‘๎€ด๎‰๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ผ๎‰๎”๎€ฐ๎Š๎Š๎€ผ๎Š๎‹๎€ณ๎€ด๎”๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎€๎€ด๎Œ๎€ด๎ˆ๎๎Š๎€บ๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎€ผ๎‰๎”๎€น๎…๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎Š๎…๎”๎๎…๎ˆ๎€๎”๎…๎‹๎Š๎”๎€ฐ๎๎๎”๎ˆ๎€ผ๎€น๎€บ๎Š๎”๎€ฑ๎€ด๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎‹๎‰๎€ด๎”
๎๎€ด๎”๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ด๎”๎€ฐ๎”๎‰๎†๎€ด๎€ฒ๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎๎”๎€น๎ˆ๎…๎‹๎†๎€Š๎€‚
๎€’๎€’๎”
๎€“๎€Ž ๎€‡๎€•๎€›๎€š๎€•๎€–๎€ง๎€š๎€๎€ง๎€‹๎€๎€™๎€•๎€ ๎€•๎€๎€ข๎€ง๎€Œ๎€ž๎€ ๎€’๎€›๎€š๎€ข๎€ฅ๎€ง๎€ž๎€–๎€ง๎€ข๎€™๎€•๎€ง๎€Š๎€ ๎€ž๎€ฃ๎€Ÿ๎€ƒ๎€ง ๎€ฎ๎„๎€ณ๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎‰๎๎€ฐ๎๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎€น๎ˆ๎…๎‹๎†๎Š๎€บ๎€ผ๎„๎€๎€„
๎ƒ๎€ด๎ƒ๎€ฑ๎€ด๎ˆ๎‰๎”๎€ฐ๎‹๎Š๎…๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎๎๎๎”๎€ฐ๎‰๎‰๎‹๎ƒ๎€ด๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎ˆ๎€ผ๎€น๎€บ๎Š๎„๎€ด๎‰๎‰๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎€ผ๎ˆ๎”๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎‹๎‰๎€ด๎€Š๎”๎€Ÿ๎Š๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎€บ๎€ด๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎€„๎”๎€ด๎„๎’
๎€น๎€ผ๎€ป๎€ด๎€ด๎ˆ๎” ๎€ ๎ˆ๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎„๎”๎€ซ๎‹๎‰๎‰๎€ด๎๎๎” ๎„๎…๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎”๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎„๎€ฐ๎€น๎€ด๎ˆ๎‰๎”๎€บ๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎”๎‰๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ต๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎ƒ๎…๎ˆ๎€ฐ๎๎”๎ˆ๎‹๎๎€ด๎‰
๎‹๎„๎€ณ๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎๎€บ๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎€บ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎๎”๎…๎†๎€ด๎ˆ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎€๎”๎€๎€ฆ๎”๎€บ๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎€ณ๎€ผ๎‰๎Š๎€ผ๎„๎€ฒ๎Š๎”๎€ต๎€ด๎€ด๎๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎๎€ด๎”๎๎€ด๎ˆ๎€ด๎”๎€ผ๎„๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎†๎…๎‰๎€ผ๎’
๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Œ๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎Š๎…๎”๎†๎ˆ๎…๎Œ๎€ด๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎€ผ๎Š๎”๎๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎‹๎„๎‰๎€ฐ๎€ท๎”๎€ผ๎„๎‰๎Š๎€ด๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎…๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎๎€ฐ๎๎”๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎…๎‹๎„๎€ณ๎€Š๎€‚
๎€•๎€‹ ๎€ˆ๎€ž๎€›๎€›๎€•๎€“๎€ข๎€š๎€ค๎€•๎€ง ๎€๎€’๎€ข๎€š๎€ž๎€๎€’๎€›๎€š๎€ฆ๎€’๎€ข๎€š๎€ž๎€๎€„๎€ง ๎€ก๎€ด๎‰๎†๎€ผ๎Š๎€ด๎” ๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎” ๎๎ˆ๎€ผ๎Š๎Š๎€ด๎„๎” ๎†๎…๎๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎๎” ๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎” ๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎” ๎€‘๎€†๎ˆ๎€ผ๎„๎€น
๎‰๎€ด๎€ฐ๎๎”๎๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎€ฐ๎”๎€ฒ๎ˆ๎€ผ๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎๎”๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎๎‹๎ˆ๎€ด๎”๎†๎…๎€ผ๎„๎Š๎”๎๎€ผ๎Š๎€บ๎…๎‹๎Š๎”๎€ฑ๎€ฐ๎€ฒ๎€๎‹๎†๎€„๎”๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎”๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎„๎€ฐ๎€น๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎€ค๎€ด๎…๎ˆ๎€น๎€ด๎”๎€ฅ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ณ๎
๎Š๎€ด๎‰๎Š๎€ผ๎€ธ๎€ด๎€ณ๎” ๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎” ๎€๎๎€ด๎” ๎๎€ด๎ˆ๎€ด๎” ๎€ฒ๎…๎‹๎„๎Š๎€พ๎„๎€น๎” ๎…๎„๎” ๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎” ๎‰๎€ด๎€ฒ๎…๎„๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎๎” ๎€‘๎€‡๎ˆ๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎” ๎Š๎…๎” ๎€ฑ๎€ด๎” ๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎‰๎€ด๎€ฐ๎๎€ผ๎„๎€น
๎€‘๎€‡๎ˆ๎€พ๎„๎€น๎”๎‹๎„๎€ณ๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎๎…๎ˆ๎‰๎Š๎”๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎‰๎€ด๎”๎€ฒ๎…๎„๎€ณ๎€ผ๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎‰๎€Œ๎€‚๎”๎€Ÿ๎†๎†๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ด๎„๎Š๎๎๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ผ๎‰๎”๎๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎€ฐ๎”๎‰๎€บ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎ƒ๎€ผ๎‰๎€ฒ๎…๎„๎“
๎€ฒ๎€ด๎†๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎€Œ๎”๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎”๎ƒ๎€ฐ๎„๎€ฐ๎€น๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎€จ๎€ฐ๎๎ˆ๎€ด๎„๎€ฒ๎€ด๎”๎€ฉ๎‹๎๎๎…๎๎”๎€ฒ๎…๎„๎€ต๎€ผ๎ˆ๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎€๎„๎…๎”๎…๎„๎€ด๎”๎€ผ๎„๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎ƒ๎€ด๎€ด๎Š๎“
๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎‡๎‹๎€ด๎‰๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎€ต๎€ฐ๎€ฒ๎Š๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎‰๎€ด๎€ฒ๎…๎„๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎๎”๎‰๎€ด๎€ฐ๎๎”๎๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎†๎€ฐ๎€ฑ๎๎€ด๎”๎€ฐ๎„๎€ณ๎”๎€ผ๎„๎”๎†๎…๎‰๎€ผ๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎”๎Š๎…
๎‰๎€ด๎€ฐ๎๎”๎€ณ๎‹๎ˆ๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎€ด๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎๎๎”๎†๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎Š๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎€ผ๎€น๎„๎€ผ๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎”๎Š๎ˆ๎€ฐ๎„๎‰๎€ผ๎€ด๎„๎Š๎€Œ๎€‚๎”๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ผ๎‰๎”๎€ฒ๎…๎๎๎€ด๎€ฒ๎Š๎€ผ๎Œ๎€ด๎”๎ˆ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎€ฐ๎๎€ผ๎‘๎€ฐ๎“
๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎”๎‰๎‹๎†๎†๎…๎ˆ๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎€ฐ๎”๎ƒ๎€ผ๎„๎€ณ๎‰๎€ด๎Š๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎€๎€บ๎€ด๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎”๎„๎…๎”๎€ด๎Œ๎€ผ๎๎€„๎”๎‰๎€ด๎€ด๎”๎„๎…๎”๎€ด๎Œ๎€ผ๎๎€„๎”๎‰๎†๎€ด๎€ฐ๎€๎”๎„๎…๎”๎€ด๎Œ๎€ผ๎๎€‰๎€‚
๎€’๎€”
๎€—๎€
๎€๎€ฃ๎€ข๎€๎€˜๎€ ๎€ž๎€ฃ๎€Ÿ๎€ง๎€๎€ข๎€•๎€ ๎€•๎€ž๎€ข๎€ฅ๎€Ÿ๎€•๎€ก๎€ƒ๎€ง ๎€Ÿ๎๎Š๎€บ๎…๎‹๎€น๎€บ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎ˆ๎€ด๎”๎€ผ๎‰๎”๎„๎…๎”๎€ณ๎€ผ๎ˆ๎€ด๎€ฒ๎Š๎”๎€ด๎Œ๎€ผ๎€ณ๎€ด๎„๎€ฒ๎€ด๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ
๎…๎€ต๎€ต๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎€ผ๎€ฐ๎๎‰๎” ๎๎…๎…๎€๎€ด๎€ณ๎” ๎€ณ๎…๎๎„๎” ๎…๎„๎”๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ผ๎…๎€๎…๎๎” ๎€ด๎„๎€น๎€ผ๎„๎€ด๎€ด๎ˆ๎‰๎€„๎” ๎€ฉ๎‹๎๎๎…๎๎” ๎๎€ฐ๎‰๎”๎€ฒ๎€ฐ๎‹๎‰๎Š๎€ผ๎€ฒ๎” ๎€ฐ๎€ฑ๎…๎‹๎Š๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎€ผ๎ˆ
๎ˆ๎€ด๎€ฒ๎…๎ƒ๎ƒ๎€ด๎„๎€ณ๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ผ๎…๎„๎”๎Š๎…๎” ๎†๎…๎‰๎Š๎†๎…๎„๎€ด๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎๎€ฐ๎‹๎„๎€ฒ๎€บ๎”๎‹๎„๎Š๎€ผ๎๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎Š๎€ด๎ƒ๎†๎€ด๎ˆ๎€ฐ๎Š๎‹๎ˆ๎€ด๎” ๎ˆ๎…๎‰๎€ด๎”๎Š๎…๎”๎€˜๎€–๎”๎€ณ๎€ด๎’
๎€น๎ˆ๎€ด๎€ด๎‰๎€‰๎”๎€ฅ๎€ด๎”๎ˆ๎€ด๎†๎…๎ˆ๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎๎๎”๎€ฐ๎‰๎€๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎๎€บ๎€ด๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎๎”๎€ด๎Ž๎†๎€ด๎€ฒ๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎€ช๎€Ÿ๎€ฌ๎€Ÿ๎”๎Š๎…๎”๎๎€ฐ๎€ผ๎Š๎”๎‹๎„๎Š๎€ผ๎๎”๎€Ÿ๎†๎ˆ๎€ผ๎๎”๎Š๎…
๎๎€ฐ๎‹๎„๎€ฒ๎€บ๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎‰๎€บ๎‹๎Š๎Š๎๎€ด๎€Š
๎€™๎€Ž ๎€๎€•๎€›๎€—๎€‚๎€ˆ๎€•๎€๎€ก๎€ž๎€ ๎€ก๎€™๎€š๎€Ÿ๎€ƒ๎€ง ๎€ฏ๎€ด๎”๎„๎…๎๎”๎€๎„๎…๎๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ฐ๎Š๎”๎€ญ๎€บ๎€ผ๎…๎€๎…๎๎”๎€ด๎„๎€น๎€ผ๎„๎€ด๎€ด๎ˆ๎”๎€ค๎€ด๎…๎ˆ๎€น๎€ด๎”๎€ฉ๎€ฒ๎€ก๎…๎„๎€ฐ๎๎€ณ
๎๎€ฐ๎„๎Š๎€ด๎€ณ๎”๎Š๎…๎”๎†๎…๎‰๎Š๎†๎…๎„๎€ด๎”๎Š๎€บ๎€ด๎”๎€ต๎๎€ผ๎€น๎€บ๎Š๎€Š๎”๎€ ๎‹๎Š๎”๎€ผ๎„๎‰๎Š๎€ด๎€ฐ๎€ณ๎”๎…๎€ต๎”๎€ฒ๎๎€ด๎€ฐ๎ˆ๎๎๎”๎‰๎Š๎€ฐ๎Š๎€ผ๎„๎€น๎”๎€๎€ฆ๎”๎ˆ๎€ด๎€ฒ๎…๎ƒ๎ƒ๎€ด๎„๎€ณ๎”๎๎€ด
๎€ณ๎…๎„๎€ƒ๎Š๎”