By 1960, when this paper was published, the world was at the dawn o...
## Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain stabi...
Poikilothermic animals, sometimes referred to as “cold-blooded” ani...
Roughly one year after this paper was published, on April 12, 1961,...
The paper’s mention of thousand-year space voyages might seem extre...
Invented by Stanley Rose, the Rose Osmotic Pump was developed to de...
Fundamentally breathing allows animals to exchange gases essential ...
The term cyborg, is short for cybernetic organism. It refers to a b...
The drugs likely referenced here are amphetamines, widely used duri...
In the mid-20th century, compounds like aminoethylisothiouronium (A...
Heparin, discovered in 1916, is a natural substance used to prevent...
An arterio-venous (AV) shunt is a direct connection between an arte...
In microgravity, muscles can lose up to 20% of mass in just 5–11 da...
The vestibular system, located in the inner ear, is responsible for...
Cyborgs
and
space
Altering man’s bodily functions
to
meet
the
requirements
of
extrater
-
restrial environments would
be
more
logical than providing an earthly
environment
for
him
in
space
.
.
.
Artifact
-
organism systems which would
extend man’s unconscious, self
-
regulatory controls are
one
possibility
By
Manfred
E.
Clynes and Nathan
S.
Kline
ROCKLAND STATE HOSPITAL,
ORANGEBURG,
N.
Y.
Clynes
Kline
Manfred
E.
Clynes has since 1956 been
chief research scientist at Rockland State,
in charge of the Dynamic Simulation Lab.
A graduate
of
the Univ.
of
Melbourne,
Australia, and holder
of
an
M.S.
from
Juilliard School, he has
for
the past 10
years been engaged in the design and
development
of
physiological instrumen
-
tation and apparatus, ultrasonic trans
-
ducers, and electronic data
-
processing
systems.
Nathan
S.
Kline has been director of re
-
search at Rockland State since 1952 and
an assistant professor of clinical psychia
-
try at the Columbia Univ. College
of
Physicians and Surgeons since
1957.
Au
-
thor
of
more than
100
papers, Dr. Kline
holds a New York Newspaper Guild Page
One Award in
science, the Adolf Meyer
Award
of
the Assn. for Improvement
of
Mental Health, and the Albert Lasker
Award
of
the American Public Health
Assn.
This article
is
baed on
a
paper pre
-
sented under
the
title
of
“Drugs, Space
and Cybernetics”
at
the .Psychophysio
-
logical Aspects
of
Spme Flight Sym
-
posium sponsored by the AF School of
Aviation Medicine in Sun Antonio, Tex.,
in May. The complete paper will appear
in
the Symposium proceedings, to be
published by Columbia Univ. Press.
SPACE
travel challenges mankind not only technologically but
also spiritually, in that it invites man to take an active part in
his own biological evolution. Scientific advances of the future
may thus
be
utilized to permit man’s existence in environments
which differ radically from those provided
by
nature as we know
it.
The task
of
adapting man’s body to any environment he may
choose will
be
made easier by increased knowledge of homeo-
static functioning, the cybernetic aspects of which are just begin
-
ning to be understood and investigated. In the past evolution
brought about the altering of bodily functions to suit different
environments. Starting as
of
now, it will be possible to achieve
this to some degree
without alteration
of
heredity
by suitable bio-
chemical, physiological, and electronic modifications
of
man’s
existing modus vivendi.
Homeostatic mechanisms found in organisms are designed to
provide stable operation in the particular environment
of
the or
-
ganism, Examples of three successful alternate solutions pro
-
vided by biological mechanisms to the body
-
environment problem
with regard to operating temperature are man, hibernating ani
-
mals, and poikilothermic fish (organisms with blood that take on
the temperature
of
the environment).
Various biological solutions have also been developed for an
-
other problem
-
respiration. Mammals, fish, insects, and plants
each have
a
different solution with inherent limitations but emi
-
nently suitable
for
their field
of
operation.
Should an organism
desire
to
live outside this field, an apparently “insurmountable”
problem exists.
However, is the problem really insurmountable?
If
a fish
wished to live on land, it could not readily do
so.
If,
however, a
particularly intelligent and resourceful fish could
be
found, who
had studied a good deal
of
biochemistry and physiology, was a
master engineer and cyberneticist, and’had excellent lab facilities
available to him, this fish could conceivably have the ability to
design an instrument which would allow him to live
on
land and
breathe air quite readily.
In
the same manner,
it
is becoming apparent that we will in the
not too distant future have sufficient knowledge to design
instru-
26
Astronautics
/
September
1960
mental control systems which will make it possible
for our bodies to do things which are no less diffi
-
cult.
The environment with which man is now con-
cerned is that of space. Biologically, what are the
changes necessary to allow man to live adequately
in the space environment? Artificial atmospheres
encapsulated in some sort of enclosure constitute
only temporizing, and dangerous temporizing at
that, since we place ourselves in the same position
as
a
fish taking a,small quantity of water along with
him to live on
.lalid. The bubble all too easily
bursts.
The biological ,problems which exist in space
travel are many and varied. Long-term space voy
-
ages, involving flights not of days, months or years,
but possibly of several thousand years, will even
-
tually
be
hard realities, and resultant physiological
and psychological conditions must be considered.
These are reviewed below. In some cases, we
have proposed solutions which probably could
be
devised with presently available knowledge and
techniques. Other solutions are projections into
the future which by their very nature must resemble
science fiction.
To
illustrate, there may
be‘
much
more efficient ways
of
carrying out the functions of
the respiratory system than by breathing, which
be-
comes cumbersome in space. One proposed solu
-
tion for the not too distant future
is
relatively sim
-
ple: Don’t breathe!
If
man attempts partial adaptation to space condi-
tions, instead
of
insisting
on
carrying his whole
environment along with him, a number of new pos
-
sibilities appear. One is then led to think about the
incorporation of integral exogenous devices to bring
about the biological changes which might be neces
-
sary in man’s homeostatic mechanisms to allow him
to live in space
qua
natura.
The autonomic nervous system and endocrine
glands cooperate in man to maintain the multiple
balances required for his existence. They do this
without conscious control, although they are ame
-
nable to such influence. Necessary readjustments of
these automatic responses under extraterrestrial con
-
ditions require the aid of control theory,
as
well
as
extensive physiological knowledge.
Cyborg
-
Frees
Man
+o
Explore
What are some of the devices necessary for creat
-
ing self-regulating man
-
machine systems? This self-
regulation must function without the benefit
of
consciousness in order to cooperate with the body’s
own autonomous homeostatic controls. For the
exogenously extended organizational complex func
-
tioning as an integrated homeostatic system uncon
-
sciously, we propose the term “Cyborg.” The Cy-
One
of
the first Cyborgs, this 220
-
gm rat has under its
I
skin the Rose osmotic pump (shown in close
-
up below
1,
I
designed to permit continuous injections
of
chemicals
at
1
a slow, controlled rate into an organism without any
I
attention on the part
of
the organism.
i
borg deliberately incorporates exogenous compo-
nents extending the self-regulatory control function
of the organism in order to adapt it to new environ
-
ments.
If man in space, in addition to flying his vehicle,
must continuously be checking on things and mak
-
ing adjustments merely in order to keep himself
alive, he becomes
a
slave to the machine. The pur
-
pose
of
the Cyborg, as well as his own homeostatic
systems, is to provide an organizational system in
which such robot
-
like problems are taken care of
automatically and unconsciously, leaving man free
to explore, to create, to think, and to feel.
One device helpful to consideration of the con
-
struction of Cyborgs, which is already available, is
the ingenious osmotic pressure pump capsule de
-
veloped by
S.
Rose for
(
C
O
N
T
I
N
U
E
D
O
N
P
A
G
E
74)
Septenaber
1960
1
Astronautics
27
Reflectors for
Solar
Power
Some
7000
of these small aluminum reflectors would be
banked to focus solar rays on a
thermocoupIe in a
1500-
watt power generator under study
by
Hamilton Standard
Div.
of
United Aircraft for
WADD.
The company will
have a 100
-
watt model using about
900
reflectors ready
for evaluation this fall. The banks of reflectors will be
designed
to
unfold
in
space from
a
compact plckage.
__
Cyborgs
and
Space
(CONTISUED
FROM
PAGE
27)
continuous slow injections of biochem
-
ically active substances at
a
biological
rate. The capsule is incorporated into
the organism and allows administra
-
tion of
a
selected drug at a particular
organ and at
a
continuous variable
rate, without any attention on the part
of the organism.
Capsules are already available
which will deliver
as
little
as
0.01 ml/
day for 200 days, and there is no
reason why this time could not be ex
-
tended considerably. The apparatus
has already been used on rabbits and
rats, and for continuous heparin injec
-
tion in man.
No
untoward general ef
-
fect on health was noted when the in
-
jector was buried in animals. As long
as
five years ago, an injector
7
cm
long and
1.4
cm in diam, weighing
15
gm, was successfully bufied under the
skin of rats weighing 150
-
250 gm.
The photo on page 27 shows
a
rat
weighing
220
gm with an injector
in
situ,
The combination of
an
osmotic pres
-
sure pump capsule with sensing and
controlling mechanisms can form
a
continuous control loop which will act
as
an adjunct to the body’s own au-
tonornous
controls. In this manner,
these controls can be changed to the
desired
performance characteristics
uder various environmental condi
-
tions. If these characteristics were
determined, such
a
system would be
possible today with the selection
of
appropriate drugs.
For example, systolic blood pres
-
sure may be sensed, compared to a ref
-
erence value based on the space con
-
ditions encountered, and regulated by
letting the difference between sensed
and reference pressures control ad
-
ministration of an adrenergic or vaso
-
dilator drug. Of course, any such
system presupposes that we would be
cognizant of what optimum blood
pressure would be under various space
conditions.
While it is quite difficult to set up
per limits
to
“natural” human physio
-
logical and psychological perform
-
ance, we can take
as
minimal the ca
-
pabilities demonstrated under control
conditions such
as
yoga or hypnosis.
The imagination is stretched by the
muscular control of which even the un
-
dergraduate at
a
Yoga College is
capable, and hypnosis per se may
prove to have
a
definite place in space
travel, although there is much to be
learned about the phenomena of dis
-
sociation, generalization of instruc
-
tions, and abdication
of
executive
con
-
trol.
We are now working
on
a
new
preparation which may greatly en
-
hance hypnotizability,
so
that pharma
-
cological and hypnotic approaches
may be symbiotically combined.
Psycho
-
Physiological
Problems
Let
us
now turn our attention to
some of the special physiological and
psychological problems involved in
space travel, and see how Cyborg dy
-
namics may help achieve better under
-
standing and utilization of man’s
natural abilities.
Wakefulness.
For flights of rela
-
tively short or moderate duration
-
a
few weeks or even
a
few months
-
it
would appear desirable to keep the as
-
tronaut continuously awake and fully
alert. The extension of normal func
-
tioning through the use of that group
of
drugs known
as
psychic energizers,
with adjunctive medication, for this
purpose is a present
-
day reality. In
flights lasting
a
month or two, no more
than
a
few hours
a
day of sleep would
be required in the normal environ
-
ment if such drugs were employed.
Tests indicate efficiency tends to in
-
crease, rather than decrease, under
such
a
regime, and extended usage ap
-
pears entirely feasible.
Radiation
Efects.
One subsystem
of the Cyborg would involve a sensor
to detect radiation levels and an adap
-
tation of the Rose osmotic pump
which would automatically inject pro
-
tective pharmaceuticals in appropri
-
ate doses. Experiments at the
AF
School of Aviation Medicine already
indicate an increase in radiation re
-
sistance resulting from combined ad
-
ministration of aminoethylisothioron-
ium and cysteine to monkeys.
Metabolic
Problenzs
and
Hypother
-
mic
Controls.
In the case of pro
-
longed space flight, the estimated con
-
sumption of
10
Ib
a
day for human
fuel
-
2 lb of oxygen,
4
lb of fluid, and
4
lb
of
food
-
poses
a
major problem.
During
a
flight
of
a year or longer,
as
-
suming that the vehicle
was
operating
satisfactorily, there would be little or
no reason for the astronaut
to
be
awake for long periods unless some
emergency arose. Hypothermia (re
-
duction of body temperature) would
appear
to
be
a
desirable state in such
long voyages in order to reduce me
-
tabolism, and thus human “fuel” con
-
sumption. The use of external cool
-
ing, reduction of the temperature
of
the blood in an arterio
-
venous shunt,
and hibernation (through pituitary
control), alone or in combination with
pharmaceuticals, all seem to offer pos
-
sibilities
in
attempting to obtain and
maintain such
a
state. Control of the
temperature by influencing the heat
regulating center would be more de
-
sirable than changing the reference
level.
Oxygenization and Carbon Dioxide
Removal.
Breathing in space is a
problem because the space environ
-
ment will not provide the necessary
oxygen, and respiration eliminates
needed carbon
,dioxide and involves
heat and water losses. An inverse fuel
cell, capable of reducing
C02 to its
'components with removal of the car
-
bon and recirculation of the oxygen,
would eliminate the necessity for lung
breathing. Such
a
system, operating
either on solar or nuclear energy,
would replace the lung, making
breathing, as we know it, unnecessary.
Conventional breathing would still' be
possible, should the environment per
-
mit it, discontinuing the fuel
-
cell op
-
eration.
Fluid Intake and Output.
Fluid
balance in the astronaut could be
largely maintained via
a
shunt from
the ureters to the venous circulation
after removal or conversion of noxious
substances. Sterilization
of
the gas
-
trointestinal tract, plus intravenous or
direct intragastric feeding, could re
-
duce fecal elimination to
a
minimum,
and even this might be reutilized.
Enzyme Systems.
Under condi
-
tions of lowered body temperature,
certain enzyme systems would tend to
remain more active than others. The
extent to which pharmaceutical or
chemical agents could
iniluence this
enzyme activity has not been system
-
atically investigated, but beyond ques
-
tion they will play an important
role. Since metabolism is subject to
enzyme control, several intriguing pos
-
sibilities exist.
For
example, it may be
possible through in vitro radiation to
convert certain organisms from aero
-
bic to anaerobic states and, by study
-
ing changes in the enzyme systems, to
adapt them for eventual human use.
In the same manner, selected atmos
-
pheres
of
other types could be investi
-
Vestibular Function.
Disorienta
-
tion or discomfort resulting from dis
-
turbed vestibular function due to
weightlessness might be handled
through the use of drugs,
by
tempo
-
rarily draining off the endolymphatic
fluid or, alternately, filling the cavities
completely, and other techniques in
-
volving chemical control. Hypnosis
may
also
be useful for controlling ves
-
tibular function.
Cardiovascular Control.
The appli
-
cation of control
-
system theory
to
bi
-
ology has already yielded sufficiently
fruitful results in studies
of
the multi
-
ple homeostatic functions of the cardi
-
ovascular system to indicate the pos
-
sibility of altering the system
by
the
gated.
Cyborg technique. Administration of
presently available drugs, such
as
epinephrine, reserpine, digitalis, am
-
phetamine, etc.,
by
means of Rose in
-
jectors, offers one possibility
of
chang
-
ing the cardiovascular functions
so
as
to fit them for a particular environ
-
ment. Alteration of the specific
homeostatic references within or out
-
side the brain, and electric stimulation,
either
as
a
means of regulating heart
rate or affecting selected brain centers
in order to control cardiovascular func
-
tioning, are other possibilities.
Muscular Maintenance.
Prolonged
sleep or limited activity has
a
deleteri
-
ous
effect on muscle tone. While re
-
duction
of
body temperature and me
-
tabolism may reduce the magnitude
of the problem, further investigation
of the chemical reasons for atrophy
End
of
the
Line
Official
AF
photos
show
the 5000
-
mile
Northrop
SM-62
Snark missile release
its nose, packing
a
dummy nuclear
payload, in
a
practice run on a target.
The
nose will proceed
at
supersonic
speed on a ballistic trajectory.
appears necessary to develop adequate
pharmaceutical protection to help
maintain muscle tone on prolonged
space voyages.
Perceptual Problems.
Lack of at
-
mosphere will create markedly differ
-
ent conditions of visual perception
than those with which we are familiar.
Attention should be given to provid
-
ing a medium which would recreate
some of the distortions to which we
are accustomed, and to which the
as
-
tronaut could become acclimated
be
-
fore takeoff.
Part
of the problem
would come from searching for an
adequate frame of reference, and in
this regard the factors which influence
autokinesis (and illusory movement)
may have an influence on space per
-
ception problems. Investigation
of
whether pharmaceuticals would influ
-
ence autokinesis is therefore desirable.
Pressure.
Under pressure lower
than 60
-
mm Hg, man's blood begins
to boil at his normal body temperature,
Therefore,
if
he is to venture out of his
space vehicle without
a
pressure suit,
some means must be found of reduc
-
ing his normal operating temperature
to
a
!point where the vapor pressure
of
his fluids is no greater than the inter
-
nal tissue pressures. This is another
reason why lowering of body tempera
-
ture is essential to avoid the use
of
constricting pressure suits.
Variations
in
External Temperature.
While man will require the protection
of a space ship
or station at the real
extremes of temperature, there are
also likely to be intermediate condi
-
tions within or close to the limits
of
human tolerance. By controlling re
-
flection ad absorption by means
of
protective plastic sponge clothing plus
chemicals already in existence which
produce changes in pigmentation and
provide effective protection against
actinic rays, it should be possible to
maintain desired body temperature.
Needed
is
a light
-
sensitive, chemically
regulated system which would adjust
to
its own reflectance
so
as
to main
-
tain the temperature desired.
Gravitation.
A
change in the ratio
of
gravity and inertia forces to mo
-
lecular forces will alter mobility pat
-
terns, among other things. Body tem
-
perature control and other uses
of
pharmaceuticals could possibly im
-
prove functioning under conditions of
greater or lesser gravitation than that
on
earth.
Magnetic Fields.
Chemicals alld
temperature alteration might also act
to retard
or
facilitate the specific ef
-
fects
of
magnetic fields in space.
Sensory Invariance and Action Dep-
Tivation.
Instead of sensory depriva
-
tion, it is sensory invariance, or
lack
of
change
in sensory stimuli, which
may be the astronaut's bugaboo.
In
September
1960
/
Astronautics
75
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most
of
the sensory deprivation experi
-
ments to date, it has been sensory in-
variance which has produced discom
-
fort and, in extreme circumstances, led
to the occurrence of psychotic-like
states. Of even greater significance
may be action invariance, deprivation
or limitation, since in
many such ex
-
periments subjects have mentioned a
"
desire for action.
"
The structuring of
situations
so
that action has a mean-
ingful sensory feedback should reduce
these difficulties. Here again drugs
could play a useful role in reducing
resultant tensions. Action without
demonstration that such behavior is
purposeful or sensory stimuli without
opportunity for appropriate response
are both highly disturbing.
Psychoses.
Despite all the care ex-
ercised, there remains a strong possi-
bility that somewhere in the course of
a long space voyage a psychotic epi-
sode might occur, and this is one con
-
dition for which
no
servomechanism
can be completely designed at the
present time. While an emergency
osmotic pump containing one of the
high
-
potency phenothiazines together
with reserpine could
be
a part of the
complete space man's kit, the frequent
denial by an individual undergoing a
psychotic episode that his thought
76
Astronautics
/
September
1960
processes, emotions, or behavior are
abnormal, might keep him from vol
-
untarily accepting medication. For
this reason, if monitoring is adequate,
provision should be made for trigger-
ing administration of the medication
remotely from earth or by a companion
if there is a crew
on
the vehicle.
Limbo.
The contingency of possi-
ble extreme pain or suffering as a re-
sult of unforeseen accidents must also
be considered. The astronaut should
therefore
be
able to elect a state of
unconsciousness if he feels
it
to
be
necessary. Prolonged sleep induced
either pharmacologically or electroni-
cally seems the best solution.
Other
Problems
There obviously exists an equally
large number of medical problems
amenable to pharmacological influence
which have not been discussed here
for lack of space. Among these are
such conditions as nausea, vertigo, mo-
tion sickness, erotic requirements, vi-
bration tolerance, etc.
However, those selected
for discus
-
sion offer an indication as to what the
Cyborg can mean in terms of space
travel. Although some of the pro-
posed solutions may appear fanciful,
it should
be noted that there are ref
-
erences in the Soviet technical litera-
ture to research in many of these same
areas. Thus we find the Russians pro-
posing prior oxygen saturation
as
a
so
-
lution to the problem of respiration
during the first few minutes after space
vehicle launchings; reporting on altera-
tions of the vestibular function both
by drugs and surgery; studying per
-
ception and carrying out research
on
the laws of eye motion in vision; find-
ing that lowering of temperature can
aid in solving pressure problems; etc.
Solving the many technological
problems involved in manned space
flight by adapting man to his environ-
ment, rather than vice versa, will not
only mark a significant step forward
in man's scientific progress, but may
well provide a new and larger dimen-
sion for man's spirit as well.
++
A
complote llst
of
references
for
this paper mag
be obtained
bg writing
to
the
Editor,
Astro
-
nautics,
500
Fifth Aoe., New York
36,
N.Y.
Army
Missile
Transfer
August
1
the Army transferred
seven surface-to-surface missile sys-
tems
-
Honest John, Little John, Cor-
poral, Sergeant, Light Antitank
Weapon (LAW), Missile A, and Mis-
sile B
-
from ARGMA to ABMA, which
has had Redstone, Jupiter, and
Per-
shing. ARGMA will continue respon-
sibility for Nike-Zeus, Nike-Hercules,
Nike-Ajax, Hawk, Mauler,
Redeye,
Lacrosse, and Shillelagh, and for field
service activities related to manage
-
ment of the transferred weapons.
Rotary Wings
For Re
-
entry
The AF's Wright Air Development
Div. recently awarded Kaman Aircraft
a contract for nearly
a
half
-
million
dollars to develop and test a guided
recovery device based on Kaman's
Rotochute, shown above fixed to three
payloads weighing from
100
to
200
lb and strung by a cable to the bot
-
tom one. The development will aim
at a re
-
entry aid for manned space
capsule?, nose cones, and rocket boost
-
ers.
Roughly one year after this paper was published, on April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first human to journey into space aboard the Soviet spacecraft Vostok 1. His historic flight lasted just 108 minutes, completing a single orbit of Earth. Gagarin’s survival was made possible by an intricate life-support system designed to address the challenges of space:
- **Oxygen Supply**: Vostok 1 provided a pressurized cabin with an oxygen system, ensuring Gagarin could breathe normally. The system included chemical scrubbers to remove carbon dioxide from the air.
- **Temperature Regulation**: The spacecraft maintained a stable internal temperature, with thermal insulation and cooling systems to counter the extreme heat and cold of space.
- **Pressure Control**: The cabin was pressurized to mimic Earth’s atmosphere, protecting Gagarin from the vacuum of space. In case of cabin depressurization, Gagarin wore a pressure suit throughout the flight for added safety.
*Vostok 1 rendering*
Fundamentally breathing allows animals to exchange gases essential for life: oxygen is taken in to fuel cellular processes, and carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, is expelled. This gas exchange typically occurs via specialized organs like lungs, gills, or through the skin in some species.
However, some organisms, like tardigrades (water bears), present a fascinating exception. These tiny, resilient creatures lack a respiratory system entirely. Instead, they rely on simple diffusion, absorbing oxygen directly through their body surface.
*Scanning electron microscopy image of Tardigrade*
## Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain stability—like regulating temperature, blood pressure, and oxygen—despite external changes.
Poikilothermic animals, sometimes referred to as “cold-blooded” animals, are organisms whose body temperature fluctuates with their environment. Common examples include reptiles like snakes and lizards, amphibians like frogs, and most fish. Interestingly, some mammals like the naked mole rat and certain sloths also exhibit poikilothermic traits, allowing their body temperatures to vary with environmental conditions as an energy-saving adaptation.
This is in contrast to homeothermic animals, such as most mammals and birds, which regulate their internal temperature through metabolic processes.
Heparin, discovered in 1916, is a natural substance used to prevent blood clotting. By the 1930s, it was in clinical use to treat conditions like deep vein thrombosis and during surgeries. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Stanley Rose’s osmotic pump enabled the continuous delivery of heparin, maintaining precise anticoagulation levels and reducing the need for repeated injections, paving the way for modern sustained drug delivery methods.
The term cyborg, is short for cybernetic organism. It refers to a being that integrates biological systems with artificial, self-regulating mechanisms to adapt to new environments, such as space. The concept was groundbreaking, suggesting that humans could extend their homeostatic controls with technology, effectively becoming hybrids of biology and machinery.
The idea of the cyborg is rooted in cybernetics, a field pioneered by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. Cybernetics studies systems of communication and control in animals, machines, and organizations. Its principles, like feedback loops and system regulation, directly influenced the vision of the cyborg as a self-regulating system that works seamlessly with the human body.
In the mid-20th century, compounds like aminoethylisothiouronium (AET) and cysteine were studied as radioprotective agents, particularly for space travel and high-radiation environments. These substances worked by scavenging free radicals produced during radiation exposure, reducing oxidative damage to tissues. Research showed that their combination increased radiation resistance in animal models, such as monkeys. These compounds are no longer in use today due to limitations like toxicity and limited effectiveness.
An arterio-venous (AV) shunt is a direct connection between an artery and a vein, bypassing the capillary system. Normally, blood flows from arteries to capillaries and then to veins, allowing for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste. In an AV shunt, this flow is rerouted.
In microgravity, muscles can lose up to 20% of mass in just 5–11 days due to reduced use. To counteract this, astronauts aboard the International Space Station (ISS) engage in approximately two hours of daily exercise, utilizing resistance machines to maintain muscle strength and mass.
The drugs likely referenced here are amphetamines, widely used during the mid-20th century for their ability to enhance wakefulness, focus, and stamina. At the time, these stimulants were commonly employed in military and aviation contexts, where long hours and sustained alertness were critical. For example, fighter pilots in World War II and later conflicts, like the Korean War, were often provided with amphetamines (nicknamed “go pills”) to maintain performance during extended missions.
The paper’s mention of thousand-year space voyages might seem extreme, but it highlights the vast distances in space. To provide context:
- **Moon**: The Moon is just 384,400 km (239,000 miles) away. With Apollo technology (1960s), it took around 3 days to reach.
- **Mars**: At its closest, Mars is about 54.6 million km (33.9 million miles) away, taking a few months to reach with current spacecraft.
- **Proxima Centauri (Closest Star)**: At 4.24 light-years (40 trillion km), even at the speed of Voyager 1 (~17 km/s), it would take over 74,000 years to reach.
Invented by Stanley Rose, the Rose Osmotic Pump was developed to deliver drugs continuously and precisely using osmotic pressure. This small implantable device provided a steady release of medication over days or months without external power. Originally tested on animals like rats and later on humans, it demonstrated a groundbreaking method of drug delivery.
While the original design has evolved, the concept is still widely used today in modern drug delivery systems, such as insulin pumps and implantable infusion devices.
*Clearer picture of the rat featured in the paper*
The vestibular system, located in the inner ear, is responsible for maintaining balance and spatial orientation. In the early years of human spaceflight, astronauts first reported symptoms of disorientation, dizziness, nausea, and motion sickness during missions—effects now known as space adaptation syndrome. Notably, these issues became evident during the Gemini and Apollo programs in the 1960s, as longer missions provided more data on human responses to microgravity. To address this, space agencies introduced pre-flight training to help astronauts adapt, along with the use of medications like scopolamine and promethazine to manage symptoms during missions.
* Vestibular System *
By 1960, when this paper was published, the world was at the dawn of the Space Age, sparked by the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. The subsequent years saw a rapid escalation of space exploration efforts, driven by the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. At the time this paper was written, humans had not yet ventured into space (that would only happen in 1961 with Yuri Gagarin), but significant progress had been made in testing the effects of the space environment on living beings.
In 1957, the Soviets sent Laika, a dog, aboard Sputnik 2, marking the first time a living creature orbited Earth. While Laika did not survive the mission, the experiment provided critical insights into the biological challenges of space travel, such as weightlessness and stress. By 1960, animals like monkeys and mice had been sent into suborbital and orbital flights by both the U.S. and USSR, yielding valuable data on the physiological and psychological effects of space on living organisms.