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A MARKET ECONOMY IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE*
B PETER TEMIN
The ecm f he eal Rma Emie ha bee a bjec f d f a lea
he la ce. The dici ha bee maked b ciig debae, k
meime a he imiii/mde debae ad a he ime a he File debae,
fllig hi fam Sahe lece, The Acie Ecm. Thi ae i a cibi
 hi debae, ie b a ecmi ahe ha a acie hiia. M e i
 defie he cce f a 'make ecm', ad  ee if i fi he eidece e hae f
he eal Rma Emie.
File declaed ha, 'acie cie did  hae a ecmic em hich a
a em cglmeai f iedeede make'.1 He de imlicil 
eeach b Plai  e he ie f Reff ihi he field f acie hi
ad he f Fgel ad Egema i ecmic hi, b he did  elicil ji
hei cceal aaae.2 Mi ha mmaied he debae felled b File'
damaic lece i hi fed  he e-fifh aiea edii ad aged ha
he ce i ill ig da.3 I he  claif he ie i hi debae ad
ee ele he debae f he eid f he eal Rma Emie.
I age hee ha he ecm f he eal Rma Emie a imail a make
ecm. The a f hi ecm lcaed fa fm each he ee  ied gehe
a ighl a make fe ae da, b he ill fcied a a f a cmeheie
Medieaea make.4 Thee ae  ea h hi ccli i ima. Fi,
i big he decii f he Rma ecm a a hle i accd ih he
fagmea eidece e hae ab idiidal make aaci. Secd, hi
heic ie ide a lafm  hich  ieigae fhe ei ab he
igi ad eeal demie f he Rma ecm ad ab cdii f he
fmai ad eeai f make i geeal.
MODELS AND TESTS
File called f mdel f he acie ecm bh i hi lece ad i hi
bee 'Fhe Thgh'.' Thi i a gd aach. B ha de i mea  e
a mdel f he acie ecm? A mdel i a abac eeeai f eali. I i
imle ha eali f ecei becae i i ceaed b cial ad aal ciei h
ca l ccealie a fe dimei f eali a a ime. Mdel icall ae
mailaed i de  each ccli, ad he hae  be imle egh f hei
fmla  mailae. Wih he ade f cme, e ca deal ih mch me
cmle mdel ha befe, b he m efl mdel fe ae he imle.
M ecmic mdel ame he eiece f a make ecm. The mdel
h h iii  he ecmic fce affec ice, aiie, ad elaed
aiable i e  me idie , meime, i he ecm a a hle. The ale
f he mdel i -fld. Fi, i ide a imlified decii f ee ha ca be
eeaed ad diced. Secd, i all ecmi  e ce-facal ii.
* I hak Rge Bagall, Ala Bma, Richad
Ecka, Jeh Maig, Ia Mi, See O,
Wale Scheidel, ad he Edi f hi jal f
helfl cmme. All e ae mie ale.
I M. I. File, The Acie Ecm (I 973), 22-3.
2 K. Plai, The Gea Tafmai (I944);
K. Plai, The Lielihd f Ma (I977); M. R-
eff, The Scial ad Ecmic Hi f he
Rma Emie (I957); R. W. Fgel ad S. L. Ege-
ma, Time  he C (I 974).
3 I. Mi, 'Fed', i M. I. File, The Acie
Ecm (daed ed, i 999), i-i.
4 Thi aali i imila i ii  K. Hki,
'Tae ad ade i he Rma Emie', JRS 70
(I980), IOI-25, b cceae  he cee b
hich ece ee allcaed, i ca  H-
ki' cce ih he allcai ielf.
I File, . ci. (. I), 27, i82.
C Wld cigh: The Scie f he Pmi f Rma Sdie 200I
I70 PETER TEMIN
Tha i, he ecmi ca ak ha ld hae haeed if he iii  he
ecmic fce had bee diffee ha he acall ee. The elig ce-
facal hi i  a acc f ee a he haeed; i i a cjece ab ha
ld hae haeed had hi bee diffee. The cjece i cdiial  he
mdel. If he mdel i a  e, he cjece ill be  a ell. Ad he cjece
i limied b he mdel; i ca l ack he aiable i he mdel i he ce-
facal ld.
H ca e ell hehe a mdel i ? Thi i a ei ha ha eegied
geeai f hilhe f ciece, ad I ill aem l he m ccee ae
hee. A gd mdel fi he beed fac me clel ha a  e. Thi aael
imle aeme ha hee ima cme. Fi, a mdel deed  he
fac behid i. If e daa ae diceed, mdel ma eed  be chaged. Saed
diffeel, gd mdel ae  made   f hle clh; he ae diillai f he
aailable daa. Oe adaage f ig a mdel i ha i fe gge he eed f me
daa  ele e ei ad e i mi daa eache ha hae e ccefl
i ma field f ecmic hi. Secd, hee m be a akig b hich e ca
ell hehe e mdel fi he fac me clel ha ahe. Whe hee i a
abdace f meical daa, mde aiic ad ecmeic ide e ha
ecmic hiia e. Whe he daa ae aliaie, a he geeall ae f he
eal Rma Emie, le fmal e hae  be ed. Thid,  mdel i gd i he
abac; i i bee  e ha a aleaie.
Thi la i i ciical. Ecmic i a cmaaie ciece. The  i ld f
a ecmi h mee a clleage hile alkig ac cam. The clleage hail
he ecmi ad ak, 'H ae  childe?' The ecmi ed, 'Cmaed
 ha?' Thi ee, l lighl eaggeaed i hi , i ical f ecmi.
Ecmic mdel ae ed b hig ha he ae ei  ahe, fe
called he 'll hhei'. The ll hhei f m ecmic i ha hee i a
ell-fciig make, ha ice ae deemied b l ad demad. Thi i a
blem f he d f he Rma ecm, becae i i eciel hi ical ll
hhei ha eed  be eed.
I e  e he hhei ha hee a a make ecm i he eal
Rma Emie i  age. I ill age fi ha ma idiidal aci ad
ieaci ae ee be a make aaci. The I ill age ha hee ee
egh make aaci  cie a make ecm, ha i, a ecm hee
m ece ae allcaed b ice ha ae fee  me i ee  chage i
delig cdii. Me echicall, I ill age ha make i he eal Rma
Emie icall ee eilibaed b mea f ice.
I begi b eeig he aleaie  hich make aaci ae  be
cmaed ad he aleaie  hich a make ecm i  be cmaed. The
lgical aig i, a f  mch f hi lieae, i Plai. He ided a
am f ieaci ha ha bee ed idel. He aeed ha, 'The mai fm
f iegai i he hma ecm ae, a e fid hem, ecici, ediibi,
ad echage'.6 Thee fm decibe diffee a  gaie he ecmic fci
f a cie. Recici, a he em gge, i a em i hich ele aim ad
a gh balace beee he gd ad eice he eceie ad he he gie 
he. The ecical bligai ae deemied b cial bligai ad adii,
ad he chage l ll. Thi gaiai ca be fmalied, a i Maliki'
Tbiad Ilade,  iml flled ih ifmal  imlici le. Rediibi
i a em i hich gd 'ae clleced i e had ad diibed b ie f
cm, la,  ad hc ceal decii'.7 Thi em i ee i i a mall a
hehld, hee i i k a hehldig, a ell a i he aai leied b
mde ae. The eeial chaaceiic i ha a ceal ahi cllec ad
diibe gd ad eice. Echage i he familia ecmic aaci hee
ele lail echage gd f each he  f me. Plai' caegie
6 Plai, . ci. (. 2, I977), 35-6.
7ibid., 40.
A MARKET ECONOMY IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE 17I
aea feel i bk ab ai aec f claical aii, fm Peacck
ad William  amhae  Jgma  Pmeii  Gae  fd.8
Plai' defiii f hee diffee fm f iegai ae aealig, b
imecie. The gge hee mdel f ieaci; e eed  make hem ecie
egh ha e ca che beee hem. P ed e i a d f imiie
ad eaa ecmie ha ca be ed  diffeeiae Plai' fm f iegai.9
P diigihed beee ha he called echage ad afe. Echage ae
balaced aaci hee gd  eice ae echaged f he gd  eice
f eal ale. Thi, f ce, i he kid f behai m fe beed i make.
Tafe ae e-a aaci hee gd ad eice ae gie ih a diec
e. Ga, ibe, ad ae ae all afe. P eclded 'iiible' fm hi
accig,  ha ae ae cideed  be afe ahe ha a echage f gd
 me i de  chae cial de  milia cce. Thi ecli i
ecea becae e ca ala hheie a iiible gai ha make all
aaci balaced. I ha cae, hee i  a  dicimiae beee diffee
fm f behai.
P bdiided echage i he i hich he ai f gd  eice
echaged ca a ad he i hich i ca. The fme ma  ma  ile
me; he lae d . He emed he fme make echage; he lae ecical
echage. The e f me i a gd ide f hi diici, a ae chage i he
echage ai e ime. I he eece f me, f ce, chage i echage
ai ae eeed a chage i ice. P diided afe i ceic ad -
ceic e. Ceic afe ae beee idiidal i a cie ad 'a iii 
a idiidal caig  a cieal-ide le'.10 I he Rma ce, lage-cale
ceic afe ld be he ih he imeial ahiie. If he gai  feed Rme
ee ided b ae  ibe, hi ld be a ceic afe. If he gai ee
baied b chaig i ih me, he hi ld be a make echage.
Thee caegie ae beable, ha i, he ide be i hich aciiie
ad cieie ca be laced ih cfidece. The al ced clel  Plai'
fm f ecmic iegai. Plai' fi fm, ecici, i cmed f P'
-ceic afe ad ecical echage. Hi ecd fm, ediibi, i
accmlihed b ceic afe. Hi hid fm, echage, i chaaceied b ha
P called make echage. I fac, P' jec ca be ee a a a  make
Plai' claificai emiicall eable,  eceail eachig Plai' ccl-
i ha 'ice-makig make [ae] he eceial ccece i hi'.
Thi i-a chema ced al  a diii f idiidal behai. I hae
aged ha ele ee da el  a mie f behaial mde, chig hich
e  e a a el f ieal ad eeal fce.12 Thee fce ca be eeeed
  dimei. Oe dimei meae ieal fce alg a ide f eal
am. The he dimei idee he aidi f chage i he eeal
eime. Whe ele ae le am ad chage i l, he icall
ilie cma behai. Whe chage i aid ad eal am i eihe
e high  e l, he ele e cmmad behai. Whe eal am
i high ad he ace f chage i mdeae, ele eml imeal behai, ha
i, he hae elici gal i mid ad che aci ha adace hei la. Thee
diffee mde f behai ced  he hee e f gaiai ed i
ecmic life. Cma behai geeall i ed f -ceic afe ad
ecical echage, ha i, ecici. Cmmad behai i ical f ceic
8 D. P. S. Peacck ad D. F. William, Amhae
ad he Rma Ecm (i986); W. Jgma, The
Ecm ad Scie f Pmeii (I988); P. Gae,
Famie ad Fd Sl i he Gaec-Rma Wld
(I999).
9 F. L. P, The Oigi f he Ecm: A
Cmaaie Sd f Diibi i Pimiie ad
Peaa Ecmie (I 977).
10 ibid., 34.
11 W. G. Neale, 'The make i he ad hi',
i K. Plai, C. M. Aebeg, ad H. W. Pea
(ed), Tade ad Make i he Eal Emie (I957),
37I.
12 P. Temi, 'Mde f behai', Jal f Ec-
mic Behai ad OgaiaiI ( 980), I 75-95.
I72 PETER TEMIN
afe, ha i, ediibi. Ad imeal behai i ed i make
echage.
Ceel hee ae  e f e e ca e  dicimiae beee he
ai kid f iegai. Pice ae ed i make echage, b  i -ceic
afe. The ma aea i ecical echage, alhgh he ill  a i
ee  ecmic cdii i ha ce. Vaiable ice he ca be ed a
make f he eece f make echage. Phaed diffeel, e ca ife fm he
eiece f ice ha make echage me clel decibe he ieaci
caiig he ice ha ecici  ediibi. Of ce, e ill eed  make
e ha hee ice ca a e ime  make e ha he ice ae  iml
able make f a -ceic echage, ha i, a ecific e f ecici.
I addii, ele ill behae imeall i make echage,  cmail
 b cmmad, ice hee  mde f behai ae ical f ecical ad
ediibie gaiai. Thgh ae beed fa le eail ha ice, alhgh
acie ce fe e he fme me lbl ha he lae. Neehele, e
ca ak he acie ah decibe hei aciiie if he ae decibig imeal,
cma,  cmmad behai. We d  b cmaig h ell each mdel f
behai fi he decibed aci  he imed hgh.
The aali  fa ell h  fid make echage i he eal Rma Emie.
B h ma make echage ae eeded  make a make ecm hee m
ece ae allcaed b ice ha ae fee  me i ee  chage i
delig cdii? Thee i  geeal ae  hi ei, f m ecmi
deal ih make ecmie ad hae  eed  e i e eiece. I i ecea 
cmae Rme ih he ecmie  ee he ae ad ee f make echage
i make ecmie. Eglad ad Hllad i he eeeeh ad eigheeh ceie,
hl befe he Idial Reli, had ecmie ha eee agee ee
make ecmie baed  agicle. Ye ee i hee make ecmie, a
baial a f makeed  a allcaed b ceic afe ahe ha b
make echage. Tae i Biai ee e e e ce f aial icme, ad ae
i Hllad ee e f e ce f he icme f killed labe, f hich ab
half came fm ecie ae  gd cmed b ke. Sme make echage
al had chaaceiic f ecici ad cma behai. Lage blic k i
bh cie, imail  dai lad ad (i Hllad) cai he ea, ee aid f
b ealh me, ml b  ecliel lage lade. Nmial age aed
ca f ma ea a a ime i he make ecm f eal mde Eglad, ee
hgh he ice f gai flcaed idel, ggeig ha he 'lab make' a a
lea al a m; he emlme elai a fe ecical echage.13
Ee hgh hee ee eeie -make afe ad echage, m
ece i e-idial Biai ad Hllad ee allcaed b make. Thi ca be
ee b caig hem ih ecmie ha ee  imail make ecmie.
The fedal ecm decibed b Mac Blch a a cma ecm.14 M
aaci ee made ih ice a ea ked  he ld' lad a f he
ime ad a aal eeaied ld  h hei feal. I addii, ma aaci
ee ceic afe a ea ad aal afeed ece - hei lab  he
dce f hei ea' lab -  ld i e f eci i he chaic ld
f he medieal eid. A bligai ee ie d ad he cmmed i
me ame, he cma fedal ecm deeled i eal mde make
ecmie.
Ceall laed ecmie i eieh-ce Ria ad Chia ee cm-
mad ecmie. Ria idie ad Chiee fam ee cmelled  delie
aiie f gd accdig  a ceal la. Pice i he Sie Ui ee fied f
lg eid f ime. Plae eeced fim  iae  f he le f cialim.
13 H. Phel B ad S. V. Hki, A Peecie
f Wage ad Pice (I98I); P. K. O'Bie, 'The
liical ecm f Biih aai, I66-i8I5',
Ecmic Hi Reie 4I (I988), I-32; R. Fld
ad D. N. McClke, The Ecmic Hi f
Biai ice 1700, Vl. I.- 1700-I860 (2d ed, I 997);
J. de Vie ad A. a de Wde, The Fi Mde
Ecm: Scce, Faile, ad Peeeace f he
Dch Ecm, 1500-1815 (I 997).
14 M. Blch, Fedal Scie (i 96 I).
A MARKET ECONOMY IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE I73
Whe ha did  k, he e a highe, b ill fied, ice f 'e gd'. N
iigl, ma ld gd ee elabelled a e gd, ad hee a  iceae i
iai.15 Thee ee  ee ice i he cide f Chia il ie
ecel, a fa a e ca ee, l dci a. Ol  ha make efm ae
beig idced ae fame ellig dce f a ice iead f delieig a a.
Thee i  fmal e  decide hich kid f ecm e ae beig. The
claificai f hee fe ecmie hld aea clea, hich f ce i h he
ee che. B f a ecm ab hich e hae fee eccei e ill
eed  ak eeal ei. D he m ima cmmdiie, like fd ad
ldgig, hae ice ha me? Ae hee ma aaci i hich ice aea 
la a lage a? D ice me  clea make?
MARKET EXCHANGES AND A MARKET ECONOMY
Thee ae ma ce f he hi f Rme, b he ae cil ile 
ei f ecmic gaiai. Liea eidece de  gge a fc 
ecmic affai i acie Rme, b he i de  hae hi fc da. If all e
ke ab he mde ecm came fm he file f he Time Liea Sleme
 he Ne Yk Reie f Bk, e ld be had-eed  dead he ecmic
iii ha eabled he ah eeeed i hee blicai  e hei
liea iee. I addii  beig limied, he liea eidece e hae a
cmiled b medieal chla h ee ieeed i make acii. Geee age
ha he liea eidece ed b File i The Acie Ecm fail  eeal he
echlgical ge i he acie ld ha i iible i he achaelgical ecd.16
I age ha hee i ecmic ifmai i he liea ce he ieeed i
he e ce.
We bee ilaed ice f ma Rma gd, b e lack ci eie f
cmaable ice f gd ad eice, a ma hiia hae ed. Make d
 geeae a emae ecd f chagig ice; ice eie ei l if mee 
me agec had a iee i cllecig hem. Neae eed ice i e-
idial Ee ad Ameica, b e d  hae eae fm acie Rme.
(The m cmlee acie ice eie, iicall, cme fm Babl.)17 We d hae
abda eidece ha ma gd ad eice had ice.18 Tea aid e 
hei aame i Rme, emle aid age  fee ke ad e f lae,
aelle aid f fd ad dik f hemele ad hei aimal.19 Thee ae he
dia ice f a make ecm, hig ha ma f he gd ad eice ed
i he ce f dia life ee aled b ice ad aid f b me. The
Dicleiaic ice cl edic f A.D. 30I aemed  fi a ide aie f ice.20 I
a  a eeie a, a, he Pei Decee ied b he Nai i he eieh
ce,21 b i eeal ha hee ee fleible make ice ha he ahiie ihed
 cl.
The abda eidece f Rma ciage eifie  he cmm e f ci a a
mea f ame. The ie hee i  he ie f he me l - a cei
ie - b ahe hehe i make ee  eak f a me l a all. Hgeg
15 J. S. Belie, The Iai Decii i Sie
Id ( 976).
16 K. Geee, 'Techlgical iai ad ec-
mic ge i he acie ld: M. I. File e-
cideed', Ecmic Hi Reie 53 (2000),
29-59.
17 A. L. Slk, The Be f Babl: Make
Qai i he Amical Diaie f Bablia
( 997).
18 A. C. Jh, Rma Eg  he Reig f
Dicleia (1936); R. Dca-Je, The Ecm f
he Rma Emie: Qaiaie Sdie (I982);
D. Rahbe, Ecmic Raialim ad Ral Scie
i Thid Ce A.D. Eg (i 99 I).
19 CIL IV.I38; Cice, De fficii I.42; Taci,
Aal 6. I 3, I 2.43; CIL IV. i 679.
20 CIL 111.805-9.
21 Reichkmmia f Peibildg, 'Mieilg-
bla de Reichkmmia f die Peibildg',
I 937-38 (Bdeachi RD I 3/I).
I74 PETER TEMIN
aged ha ci a ed f aaci hgh he Rma Emie.22 Eg a
fll meied, ad he aeed ha ecd f aaci i he dia aea
hed hem  ile me ahe ha bae. Ee i he cide, ele
caied ci hile aellig. I eem bi ha he caied ci i aiciai f
edig hei me big gd ad eice i make echage.
I addii  ice f gd ad eice f immediae delie, e hae ma
eamle f la. Oe eamle, fm a Dacia gld-miig illage i A.D. I 62, h a
cmm fm:
Jli Aleade, he lede, eied a mie i gd faih ha he la f i deaii
f geie ad d ci ld be dl eled  he da he eeed i. Aleade, 
f Caicci, he be, mied i gd faih ha i ld be  eled, ad declaed
ha he had eceied he i deaii meied abe, i cah, a a la, ad ha he ed
hem. Jli Aleade eied a mie i gd faih ha he iee  hi icial
fm hi da ld be e e ce e hi da ad ld be aid  Jli Aleade
  hmee i migh i he fe cce. Aleade,  f Caicci, mied i
gd faih ha i ld be  aid. Tii Pimii d e f he de ad e
ame f he icial meied abe ad f he iee. Taaced a Alb
Mai, 20 Ocbe, i he clhi f Ric (hi ecd clhi) ad Aili.23
We hae ma he ecd f la,  ala  cmlee. F eamle, i A.D.
I4I a ma laed 3,500 dachmae  ahe ma i Eg f e ea a he
ame iee ae, 420 dachmae f a e-ea la, b a daf  a iae bak.24 Thi
la i eh becae i eed he ei eamle i eeal dimei hile
ecdig a eeiall imila aaci. The Egia la a beee me ad
effeced b a bak daf, ggeig a ee me hiicaed make aaci ha
he Dacia la.
The ae f iee  la aied, hig ha hee la ee  a a
adiial leel, b  all ae ae fd. The iee ae a alm ala i he
age f f  ele e ce, eldm highe ha he ae i hee icial la.
Thi age ma eflec a hibii  la a me ha ele e ce, alhgh
Adea aged ha  eidece f a legal limi i  g.25 Whe he iee ae
a highe, i icall a  fifee  iee e ce, b e-f  f-eigh
e ce.26 The aiai h ha hee la ee  a ecical echage a a fied
ae; he ee make echage. The aae abece f iemedia ae gge
ha he Rma ma hae had difficl calclaig ae. The ed hem  a
mhl bai, a i he la decibed hee, ad he m cmm ae ee mlile
f ele. Mhl ae eded  age fm imle faci  hee  f e ce,
eha becae lede ed Rma meal. Rma make cld  eae ih
he ecii f mde make, b ha de  mea he did  eae a all.
Ohe aec f he Dacia la aaci eif  i make ae. I i a la
f ci, demaig agai ha me a ed cmml i he eal Rma
Emie. Pice, i he d, ee  iml accig i; he ee ed i
ecmic echage. The la a gaaeed b a hid e, hig ha i a
 j a cial ac beee he  icial. I a ee aigable  a ecified
e, a eealed b he aeme ha iee migh be aid  mee he ha
he lede. Thi la a  egiable i  mde ee, b i had me
hiicaed fiacial aibe. The la a ie d  ide a ie ecd
i cae he lede defaled; he eff f ecdig he la a l hhile if hee
a ece  a c i ha eeali. The la a a bidig cac,  a cial
bligai mediaed b cial ee. Thi la a made h f he Dabe ie,
22 C. Hgeg, 'The l ad e f me i he
Rma ld 200 B.C.  A.D. 300', JRS 82 (I992),
I-3I.
23 CIL 111.934-5.
24 P.Teb. 11.389, ed i J. Rlad, Wme
ad Scie i Geek ad Rma Eg (i 998), 254-5.
25 J. Adea, Bakig ad Bie i he Rma
Wld ( I 999)0 9-4.
26 Cice, 2 Ve. 3.I65-70: B' la  Salami
i C.
A MARKET ECONOMY IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE I75
fa aa fm Rme, hig ha make acii a  eiced  he ci f Rme
ale.
Wee he iee ae f la ceced  he iee ae? Dca-Je
diced he adig eidece  he fiabili - hi d - f Rma
agicle.27 He emled he ecd f e e hded eeal fdai e
  fd geme child- ga (he alimea) i ma Ialia  i he
ecd ce  calclae iee ae. The aged, ih l e fe ecei,
fm fie  ele e ce; Dca-Je cld  deec ed b he ie f
fdai  he dae fm he limied daa. Adea aged ha he iee ae
 la a icall highe ha he e  lad ad elaied he diffeece b he
geae ik i ledig me.28
The cce f fiabili ad iee ae make ee ihi make
ecmie; hee ae make cce. Adea ma hae bee idlgig i aach-
iic eaig he he aged ha highe-ik ieme eaed highe e, b
he lieae  la l make ee if acie Rma cld che  ie hei
me i diffee a, ha i, if he ee  caied b cmmad  cm.
Clak ed eacl hi kid f eidece  age ab iee ae i eeeeh- ad
eigheeh-ce Eglad. He eeed daa  he fiabili f Eglih agicl-
al fdai  ce a aei baed  he ae f iee  geme
la. He did  eed  defed he ii ha ie ld bh be able ad
a   hei me i he ae ha ld ea he highe e.29
I i had  k h e cld iee he Rma eidece  iee ad
fi a a f a ecical  ediibie gaiai f ecmic acii. The
imilai beee he ae f iee  he Rma agiclal fdai ad he
ae f mea la gge gl ha hee a a caial make i acie
Rme. A e acie Rma lkig  eihe led  b cld lk eihe
 ba la cmaie   agiclal fdai, a lea i Ial. Thi de 
mea ha Rme had a caial make ha eembled a mde bakig em, l
ha hee ee make aaci gaied i a a ha alled ele  che he
kid f ecmic acii i hich he aed  aiciae.
Ca e fid eidece f imeal behai ha gge h acie Rma
egaded hee ice? Accdig  Plach, Ca 'ed  led me i ha i el
he m dieable fm f eclai, ha i, he deiig f hi. The h
ihed  b me fm him ee bligaed  fm a lage aciai, ad he
hi eached he mbe f fif, eeeig a ma hi, he ld ake e hae i
he cma. 30 Ca' aciiie, ee if  eed cmleel accael b Plach,
ee ha a aie f make cdii eied ee i he mid-ecd ce
B.C. Maiime la ee a mae f ie; hee ee hi-e h eeded cedi
 fiace ade, ad hee ee lede h had caial  ie. Shi-e fmed
cmaie, ad hee aciai aael cld be eible f eeal hi,
ee if  ie fif. Thee ee mlile ie i ch cmaie, f Ca a
l e amg a k mbe f he ie.
Plach' acc al eeal ie hiicaed imeal behai. The
ik i maiime la a ell k, ad Ca ded ha dieificai edce
ik. He ed dieificai  edce hi ik b big a mall hae f ma hi
iead f ig e  me hi b himelf. Thi i he ame kid f behai ha
a mde ie e he big a mal fd. We ca e ha Ca had
he age f ieme e  him ha a mde ie ha  ha he ke he
heie f dieificai ha hae bee fmlaed i he eieh ce. We m,
hee, cclde ha hi behai a  cmmad  cma; i a
imeal a he ied  ea me i a make ce. Ad Plach' efeece 
fif he ie gge ha Ca a  ale. We d  k a hi i
hehe ch ieme ee eiced  he ci f Rme ielf  ee aailable
27 Dca-Je, . ci. (. i8), I32-8.
28 Adea, . ci. (. 25), 94.
29 G. Clak, 'The liical fdai f mde
ecmic gh: Eglad, I540-I8', Jal f
Iedicilia Hi 46 (i 996), 563-88.
30 Plach, Ca he Elde 2 I. 5-6.
I76 PETER TEMIN
me geeall i he Emie, alhgh iee-beaig la ee beig made a fa
aa a Dacia i he ecd ce A.D.
I cclde heefe ha e hae amle eidece f eeie make ice ad
echage i he Piciae. Thi ie agee ih ha f me he ece hiical
eeach. Rahbe ided a caefl aali ad dici f Egia ice, ig
ha he aci f ea ice made a ccli ab hem eaie. He aged
e he le, 'A fa a e ca jdge, he ice f hea, ie ad dke ee
baicall fmed b he eai f fee-make fce, ha i he fdameal f
l ad demad i a meied ecm . .. The ice i iae ale eem,  he
hle,  be "eal" ice aied a idiidall b make bagaiig ahe ha beig
adadied, cma  ial ice.'31 I em f he mdel ed hee, he
ice eee eeie make echage ical f a make ecm,  ecical
echage ical f a ecm baed  ecici.
I i  egh, hee,  h ha ice ee ideead. Pice affec he
allcai f ece i make ecmie, ad e eed  hae eidece f hi caal
elaihi a ell a idicai f he ice hemele. A icii fm Lee i
Macedia i Hadia' ime h ha ice eilibaed gai make.
The ci celebae Mai Salai Sabi, a gmaiach ad beefac, h e fe
i ime f hage ld gai me cheal ha he ce ice ad he he eme'
am a aig hgh, ided f he aa 400 medimi f hea, i f bale
ad 6 f bea, l i meeae f ie, mch cheae ha he ce ice.32
The icii celebaed a ieei i a fciig make he ice e i
ee  he added demad a he am a aig hgh. I mal ime, ele
cld b fd i make; l i eadia cicmace a al acii
called f ad celebaed. Gai ad he fd hage caed he ice f fdff
 ie, ad he ci' beefac ld fd a a le ice  alleiae he hage. Pice
eilibaed he make f gai ad he fd, i he d, b ele ee 
ala ha ih he ice eeded  dce hi eilibai. Ee da, he
ei i ed hehe geme hld ieee  ffe a make ice he
he ice f a ima cmmdi like il ie hal.
The bigge make f fd, if he ee make, ee i he ci f Rme. The
ci' lai i he Piciae i geeall eimaed a ab a milli ihabia.
Rme i he eal Rma Emie heefe eeded a l f lie - 20  40 milli
mdii f gai a ea, ab I 50-300,000 , l eeie lie f il ad ie.33
I a fa cheae  hi fd ac he Medieaea ha e lad - a i ld
emai il he ade f he ailad. Gai a hied e he ea  Rme fm
Sadiia, Sicil, Afica, ad Eg. Oil a eed  Rme fm Sai ad Afica.34
The Medieaea a 'cled' b bad eahe f f mh a ea fm Nembe
il Mach, ad dage f ab  addiial mh  eihe ide. Thee m
hae bee a lage am f hiig cmig i ad  f Oia dig he mme,
ee hgh lage hi e  Peli i he Ba f Nale, hee gai a a-
hied i malle eel f he caal i  Oia.
H a hi hiig gaied? If hi gai a ffeed  Rme a ibe 
had bee cmmadeeed diecl b Rma ahiie, he hi meme f gai
a a ceic afe. If hi meme eled fm ale f gai b fame, i a
cmed f a eie f make echage ee if he gai a chaed fm a
eee. Hki bega hi dici f he Rma ecm ih he 'eceial'
ii ha m Rma ae ee aid i me. He ed ha hee ee ae
f gai i kid fm Eg ad Afica, ed f fee diibi i Rme - he
aa, b l a mall a f he gai imed i Rme (eha fifee e ce)
31 D. Rahbe, 'Pice ad ice fmai i
Rma Eg', Ecmie aie, Pi efmai de
i da le ecmie aie (I 997), 2 I.
32 Qed i Gae, . ci. (. 8), 247-8.
33 G. Rickma, The C Sl f Acie Rme
(I980), i; Gae, . ci. (. 8), I9I, 23I.
34 D . J . Maigl, Tiliaia ( I 995) .